Resistances in School/Community Co-constructed School Reform: Scaling Up from Research to Practice in a Native American Community

Appendix A: Project 5.6 Publications and Documents

Appendix B: The Activity Setting Observation System (ASOS)

Standards Performance Continuum (SPC)

Principal Investigator:

Roland G. Tharp, CREDE, University of California, Santa Cruz

Principal Researchers:

Marilyn Feathers, Principal, Zuni Middle School

Georgia Epaloose, CREDE Project 5.6 Professional Development Coordinator and

Zuni Public School District Curriculum Specialist

Penny Bird, Director of Instruction, Zuni Public School District

R. Soleste Hilberg, Project Manager, CREDE, University of California, Santa Cruz

Hector Rivera, Principal Researcher, CREDE, University of California, Santa Cruz

Project Period: September 1996 to June 2001

Introduction

In addition to summarizing activities and findings for the duration of this project, this report also includes relevant, supporting information from preceding years of school reform within the Zuni community and schools. School reform was initiated twenty years ago by tribal leaders whose goal was to make Zuni schools culturally appropriate and effective for Zuni children. By creating a new school district coterminous with reservation boundaries, Zunis gained political control over school policies for the following reasons as stated in the "Order of the State Board of Education for the Creation of the Zuni Public School District:"

• The creation of the Zuni Public School District would recognize the significance of the uniqueness of the Zuni Indian community and return to the Zuni Indian people the ability to preserve their heritage and culture. It would also enable them to identify and attempt to solve the special problems and situations peculiar to the educational needs of the Zuni Indian children.
• The creation of the new Zuni Public School District would help establish school districts within McKinley County of a size which would lend themselves to more efficient management and control and more effective education of the children residing within the school districts.
• These facts appear to be related to the unique cultural, economic, and social experience of the children, which experiences can be better understood, accepted, and worked with if the new Zuni Public School District is created.
• It is understood that the Zuni Public School District will develop an instructional plan and curriculum program appropriate to its needs, and which meets State Board of Education standards.

After ten years, Zuni Public School District local leadership developed competence in the legal and business affairs of conducting public education in the State of New Mexico. During the following ten years, they attempted to reformulate the educational program, converting their schools' teaching methods, organization and curricula to be responsive to local tribal needs, strengths, and goals. It is during the next decade of reform that the district and community formed a relationship with Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence (CREDE). This report presents the latter five years of that collaboration.

Purpose

The purpose of this research was twofold: (1) to assist the Zuni Public School District in achieving school reform to make education appropriate and effective for Zuni students and responsive to the goals and values of the Zuni community; and (2) to document the journey of the Zuni Public School District toward school reform for the benefit of other Native American communities with similar goals (see Appendix A for a complete list of project publications) and determine the effects of cultural compatible instruction on student outcomes. The directions and values of education reforms were set by Zuni community leadership. CREDE provided research-and-development assistance for ten continuous years on school reform, including professional development, parent and community involvement, authentic assessment, and the obstacles encountered in each of those areas. CREDE’s role was to provide technical assistance to the Zuni reform leadership, and to chronicle the saga.

Reform initiatives, particularly efforts to localize curriculum and pedagogy, encountered stubborn resistance from (largely non-Native) teachers, inertia from an entrenched (largely non-Native) school bureaucracy, and a historically determined, systemic reluctance of community members to weigh in (Tharp et al., 1999). With concentrated effort and focus, there resulted great strides toward improved education for Zuni children. However, five hundred years of enmity between Native Americans and the schools that ‘serve’ them cannot be overcome in twenty.

Research Questions

The primary questions that guided our project research were:

• Research Question # 1: Is higher quality implementation of culturally compatible instruction (i.e., Standards for Effective Teaching) associated with greater student achievement?

Since we began working with the Zuni Public School District in 1990, we've progressed through several phases to position ourselves to answer the above question. To facilitate the implementation of culturally compatible instruction in Zuni schools, we funded two full-time years and two half-time years of a professional development position to assist Zuni teachers, focused at the Zuni Middle School. Our professional development coordinator, with assistance from other project personnel, provided numerous inservices, facilitated three summer institutes, and conducted individual and small-group consultations on CREDE's Standards for Effective Pedagogy.

In the second through fourth years of this project, we observed classroom instruction, both live and videotaped, and analyzed our observation data for enactments of the Standards for Effective Pedagogy. We built a database that consisted of hundreds of hours of observation data that was analyzed to determine in what ways and to what extent the use of CREDE's Standards influences and is associated with student achievement.

• Research Question # 2: What are the primary obstacles to education reform in resistant schools, and the conditions necessary for overcoming them?

Our project employed qualitative methodology to document obstacles to reform in Zuni schools. Also, to better understand the dynamics within education in Zuni, we performed an analysis of the sociohistorical context of North American national education policies imposed on Native American communities that resulted in the political, social, and economic subjugation of an entire segment of our national population. Though Native Americans face many obstacles in common with other at-risk communities, they encounter others specific to their historical context and which continue to influence contemporary classrooms through institutionalized social relations, educational practices, and goals, all of which may be at odds with those of Native American communities and their educational needs.

Research Design

Our project employed a mixed-method design: quantitative methodology allowed examination of the relationship between use of Standards for Effective Pedagogy and student outcomes (Research Question #1), and qualitative methodology facilitated our study of resistant schools (Research Question #2).

Data Collection/Instrumentation

Our project research team developed two classroom observation instruments to assess enactments of the Standards: the Activity Setting Observation System (ASOS), and the Standards Performance Continuum (SPC; see Appendix B). The latter is a rubric that provides a rating of the Standards for Effective Pedagogy. Both instruments have undergone rigorous testing resulting in valid and reliable performance-based assessments of teaching. In addition to providing teacher performance data for our research, the SPC, originally developed as a teaching and learning instrument for teachers in Zuni, also provided (a) the professional development coordinator with information on which to base important decisions regarding teacher assistance and goals for professional development, (b) the middle school principal with information on teacher performance, and (c) teachers with a developmental guide for learning the CREDE instructional model. We collected SPC data from years one through four of our project from a variety of sources: live observations, baseline videotapes, systematic videotaping and observation of classrooms, and videotapes of best practice selected by teachers.

Throughout our involvement in the Zuni District, project members documented reform activities through (a) videotaped focus groups and audiotaped interviews with teachers, school-site administrators, district administrators, tribal government and school board members, parents, parent and grandparent mentors, bilingual teaching assistants, and community members; (b) videotaped records of numerous reform activities, such as school inservices and professional development consultations; (c) field notes; and (d) extensive data on community attitudes and values about education from the CREDE/Zuni collaborative community survey.

Participants

In our study, we worked exclusively with the school district, students, and community of the Zuni Pueblo, a New Mexico Native American Reservation. The Zuni Pueblo has a population of about 10,000 residents, 99% of which are enrolled members of the Native American Tribes, and has over 2,000 students ages 3-21 in it's five public schools, two parochial schools and one Tribal Head Start program. Eighty-nine percent of public school students participate in the free or reduced price lunch program. The Zuni Middle School, the primary site of our project work, serves over 300 children annually in grades 6-8, and has 27 teachers and six instructional assistants. The Zuni people have lived in their present location for several hundred years. Zuni is a traditional Native American Tribe, one of the 19 pueblo tribes in New Mexico. Zuni is the name given to the Shiwi people, traditonally farmers, traders, and skilled craftspersons, during the time of the Spanish conquest about 500 years ago. The Shiwi language continues to be spoken in most homes and community events.

Findings/Implications

Research Question 1: Is higher quality implementation of culturally compatible instruction (i.e., Effective Teaching Strategies) associated with greater student achievement?

In the second year of this project, project researchers collaborated with a middle school teacher in a quasi-experiment to determine the effects of the CREDE instructional model in eighth grade mathematics classes. This study demonstrated that students taught with the CREDE Standards for Effective Pedagogy: (a) learned more mathematics, (b) retained more of what they learned, and (c) had greater improvement in attitudes toward mathematics than students in control classrooms receiving more traditional mathematics instruction.

The instructional unit used for this study, collaboratively developed by the researcher and teacher, imbedded the teaching and use of mathematical operations within the context of students creating graphs to present the results of self-generated survey questions. The creation of the graphs required that students use fractions, decimals, and percents to accomplish a meaningful task. CREDE teaching strategies were implemented in this instructional unit.

It was hypothesized that students instructed with the CREDE method would score higher on achievement and retention than students receiving traditional instruction, and have improved attitudes toward mathematics.

Findings supported all hypotheses: students in the CREDE group scored higher on both achievement and retention (see Figure 1). The effects on students' retention are undoubtedly the most notable finding of this study. After all, if information and processes have not been retained a mere three weeks after instruction, can we say any 'learning' has occurred?

Figure 1

The attitude measure used in this study looked at students': (a) enjoyment of mathematics, (b) perceptions of the value of mathematics, and (c) self-efficacy (beliefs regarding their ability in mathematics). Self-efficacy has a significant effect on students’ engagement, effort and persistence (Bandura, 1977). In addition, students' attitudes toward mathematics are positively correlated with mathematics achievement (Fennema & Reyes, 1981). While students in the control group did not undergo any change in attitudes toward mathematics, as expected, students instructed with CREDE Standards demonstrated significant increases both in overall attitude toward mathematics (see Figure 2) and in enjoyment of mathematics.

Figure 2

This study demonstrated that students taught with CREDE Standards learned and retained more mathematics than students in the control group, and also had improved attitudes toward mathematics. It is likely that the CREDE model may result in even greater improvement of students' mathematics achievement when instruction is extended over longer periods of time, and when delivered by teachers experienced with the model. This study is an example of how a teacher who was willing to try improved methods of teaching was able to apply the Standards for Effective Pedagogy and make a significant improvement in student learning and attitudes.

One of this project's primary goals was to examine the relationship between teachers' use of the Standards for Effective Pedagogy and student achievement. To facilitate that study, a quantitative instrument was developed, the Standards Performance Continuum (SPC), to measure teachers' use of the standards. The SPC is easily scored and readily interpretable, and satisfies concerns of practicality, reliability and validity (Hilberg, Doherty, Epaloose & Tharp, in press). Over the course of its development, inter-rater reliability was assessed several times and refinements were made to (a) clarify distinctions between levels for coders, (b) broaden its applicability to a greater range of educational contexts and grade levels, and (c) more clearly define cell criteria in an attempt to increase agreement between coders. The final version of the SPC can be characterized as having good to excellent reliability, with Spearman's Rank-Order coefficients ranging from .86 to .98 on the subscales and .96 for the SPC total scores, found by summing across the five subscales. Kendall's Ws ranged from .80 to .88 for subscales and .96 for the total score, showing a very high level of concordance between judges. Independent t-tests found the differences between coders on total scores were nonsignificant.

In the fourth year of this project, systematic SPC data were obtained through both live and videotaped observations. Data on teachers (N = 15) consisted of three to five live observations (M = 4.07) per teacher, and four to nine videotaped observations (M = 6.67) per teacher. These analyses used middle school students' ( N = 234) normal curve equivalent (NCE) scores on end-of-year standardized tests (CTBS) in five subject areas: mathematics, science, social studies, language arts and reading. Because students' language arts and reading performance were attributed to the same teacher, these two scales were collapsed into a single score (language arts/reading).

The relationship was estimated using two regression models. In both models, the independent variables were Teacher Experience (years of K-12 teaching experience) and SPC Total scores, averaged across all live and videotaped observations. The dependent variables in the first, more conservative model, recommended by Soar (1978) to control for the tendency of scores to regress to the mean on repeated measures of parallel tests, were estimated gain scores (EGS). The EGS for each content area were found by subtracting students' predicted scores based on Year 3 test performance from observed scores in Year 4. In the second, more liberal model, Year 3 NCE scores, Teacher Experience, and SPC Total scores were regressed on Year 4 NCE scores. The latter set of analyses was conducted to facilitate description of the relationships between CREDE's standards and student achievement based on actual scores.

Teachers' use of the standards were compared using a 4 x 3 (Subject x Grade) analysis of variance. Overall, SPC ratings averaged between Emerging and Developing (M = 8.09; SD = 1.16), with SPC Total scores ranging from 5.83 to 10.30. After controlling for Teacher Experience, analyses using the EGS found significant positive relationships between SPC Total scores and student achievement in science, ß = .26; t = 2.87, p = .003, and language arts/reading, ß = .12; t = 1.88, p = .03; a significant, negative relationship for mathematics, ß = -.25; t = -3.38, p < .001; and a non-significant relationship for social studies (p = .07). As shown in Table 1, the second round of regression analyses on the observed NCE scores yielded a similar pattern of results.

Although the effects appear small at first glance, a closer inspection of the beta weights of SPC Total scores reveals a potentially powerful effect on student learning. Standardized coefficients (ß) estimate changes in the dependent variable as a function of change in the independent variable, indicating the number of standard deviations the dependent variable changes when an independent variable changes by one standard deviation (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Using the data in Table 1 to illustrate the influence of CREDE's standards on student achievement, an increase of 2.94 NCE points in science scores could be predicted by an increase in science teachers' SPC scores of .82 (one standard deviation); for language arts and reading, an increase in students' language arts/reading scores of .92 NCE points could be predicted by an increase in teachers' SPC scores of 1.17. Very small changes in teacher performance as defined by the SPC could have profound effects on student achievement.

But what of the negative association between CREDE's standards and student achievement in mathematics, and the non-relationship in social studies? In this study, the mathematics teacher with the greatest gain in student achievement has masters degrees in mathematics and engineering. The observed negative effect might be interpreted as counter-evidence for the efficacy of CREDE's standards in specialized content areas such as mathematics. However, the more plausible explanation is that this effect was more likely due to the teacher's content mastery than to the inefficacy of CREDE's standards. With these students at only the 31^st mean percentile in mathematics, we can only look optimistically at the gains students might make when skilled, knowledgeable teachers also make effective use of the standards. In social studies, students' standardized scores at one grade level exhibited sharp declines for three consecutive years, returning to expected levels the following year. It was hypothesized by the district curriculum specialist that this pattern may have resulted from a mismatch between the curriculum taught and the content assessed by the standardized test.

Relationships between classroom teaching and student achievement are not likely to be strong. According to Soar (1978), 80 to 90% of the variation in student achievement is predictable from a student's standing at the beginning of the year as determined by pretests, sex, race, socioeconomic status, and IQ. Consequently, the teacher or school can only account for 10 to 20% of variation in student achievement. Despite this limitation, the pattern of results obtained in these analyses provide modest support for the value of teachers' use of CREDE's standards: SPC Total scores were positively associated with achievement gains in language arts/reading and science.

Research Question 2: What are the primary obstacles to education reform in resistant schools, and the conditions necessary for overcoming them?

We reported the first five years of this difficult journey toward community-controlled education reform in "Seven More Mountains and a Map: Overcoming Obstacles to Reform in Native American Schools" (Tharp, et al., 1999). In that paper, we presented a historical review of how schools were created for Native Americans to be assimilated into mainstream values, and how those practices persist and influence the present day-to-day struggle to improve schools in communities such as Zuni. Seven ‘mountains,’ or obstacles, to reform were each discussed with their dynamics in the Zuni community. They were:

• Disrespect of Native Americans by the school;
• Student resistance — withdrawal and reduced achievement;
• Lack of self-confidence in Native American leadership;
• Passivity of Native communities in the face of school intransigence;
• Teacher imperviousness to external influence;
• Bureaucratic, legal and policy constraints; and
• Vision conflicts, or differences, between Native communities and education power structures.

That account ended with an optimistic forecast, based on the apparent presence in Zuni of crucial factors for successful school reform observed in other Native American communities. Not all have been achieved in Zuni to date, but all were present in the reform goals and intentions of the community leaders:

• A stable core of school personnel or concerned community leaders;
• Adequate, stable funding;
• Long-term support/collaboration from outsiders, e.g., universities;
• Reform goals that include incorporation of the language and culture of the community;
• Reformed education practices contextualized in the knowledge, beliefs and ways of the community;
• Dialogic, student-centered, student-directed and cognitively challenging instruction;
• Support for teachers provided in a manner similar to that provided to students; and
• Community/family involvement in decision-making about schooling.

This report continues the unfolding of the story for the next five years. As of this writing, the journey is not over. But we are ‘in sight of home.’

When the teachers and mid-level administrators realized that Zuni reform intentions would require a serious change in their practices, both active and passive resistance by many emerged and rapidly strengthened. Angry and open refusal to cooperate was not uncommon; each new effort to institute reform practices — from pedagogy to portfolios to systematic performance evaluation to a systematic district-wide curriculum — met foot-dragging, poison-pen letters to cooperating colleagues, teachers' union attempts to prevent data collection, attempts to remove the one cooperating school principal, and openly disruptive behavior during professional development.

Over several years, the Zuni leadership continued to build the infrastructures needed to ensure that reforms would overcome these obstacles of resistance. Four strategic goals were adopted, and they were enacted simultaneously:

• Creation of systematic curricula and assessment;
• Formalizing use of the Zuni language in the schools;
• Improvement of teacher performance, particularly in pedagogy; and
• Strengthening community and family involvement in school policies and practices.

The Zuni experience provides lessons for any community wanting to influence its schools. We will discuss each of these strategies in turn.

Creation of Systematic Curricula and Assessment

Education leadership in Zuni determined that one feature essential to school reform in Zuni would be the development of a localized K-12 curriculum with an accompanying appropriate means of assessing student progress.

Creation of a Localized K-12 Curriculum

The locally developed, articulated K-12 curriculum required the collaboration of teachers, school and district administrators, and the school board. Central to the curriculum are collaboratively developed High Achievement Outcomes (primary learning goals) that guide instructional activities at all grade levels and in all content areas. Initially, the creation of the district curriculum was met with enthusiasm and optimism for what might be accomplished in such areas as increasing local expertise, building professional collegiality, and providing students with a locally relevant, challenging, district-wide curriculum without content gaps and redundancies. Curriculum development was initiated by educators working in subject area committees, who then requested the input and expertise of other teachers, principals, district administrators, and the school board. The district provided extensive training in curriculum development to all interested educators in the district, and regularly held decision-making meetings at which all were invited to participate.

Though the district curriculum was collaboratively developed by local educators, some teachers took an "if-we-wait-long-enough-it'll-go-away" stance, strengthened when some administrators did not require or encourage its implementation. Much resistance to the curriculum ensued, further hindered by frequent breakdowns in communication. For example, communication of curriculum issues and activities to the school sites was the responsibility of curriculum committee members from each school. However, some committee members did not provide thorough, accurate information, either because they were not confident, not given the opportunity, or because they simply neglected to follow through.

The successful implementation of the district curriculum required that teachers acquire a positive perception about students and the community, and also change their instructional methods to include effective teaching strategies for Native American students. While some teachers focus on what they perceive is missing, others are aware of the vast knowledge within the community that can serve as an endless resource for curriculum implementation, teaching and learning.

The development and sustainability of any reform program such as the district curriculum required the careful development of a common vision, setting clear goals, facilitating clear communication, and collaboration by all stakeholders. Those who did not share the district's vision were the source of conflict and resistance. Constant reminders of the goals, coaching, and evidence of the effectiveness of the work and its progress were necessary to the success of this work. An important part of the process was scheduled time for reflection to allow future plans to be influenced by changing conditions, and for the work to benefit from lessons learned.

Many of the district-wide reform efforts, including implementation of the district curriculum, were initiated at the Zuni Middle School. The district benefited greatly from the initiatory and persistent work done at the middle school, and the lessons learned in the process. The middle school had been the focus of early reform efforts because of its reputation within the community as "not a good school." However, under the strong leadership of a determined principal with an unfaltering eye on improving the school for Zuni children, the school and its staff moved to a position of education leadership and professionalism within the district.

District-wide Use of Student Portfolios

Another strand of reform in Zuni was the development of a district-wide, systematic means for assessing student learning and progress through more authentic means. At an administrators’ planning retreat, it was determined that successful implementation of the district curriculum and student achievement of the curricular outcomes could both be demonstrated and evaluated through portfolios of student work. Through a portfolio, students, with assistance from teachers, could demonstrate competence and growth in the curriculum’s High Achievement Outcomes. Ideally, student portfolios need to be connected to the curriculum, and also to the values and beliefs of the community. The portfolio was envisioned as a way for students, teachers, schools and the district to be accountable to the community and one another for student learning. This process was a demonstration of academic progress from kindergarten through 12th grade, which required students to present their work to a panel of community members at each point of transition: fifth, eighth and twelfth grades.

Though student portfolios were initiated to achieve the district’s educational goals, the process for implementation was not clearly understood by all teachers. Thus, the development of student portfolios got off to an uneven start. Recent efforts have focused on the development of criteria for portfolio implementation, and for developing a consensus regarding their application.

One goal of the portfolio process was to enable educators and community members to determine what students have learned. The district's objective is to change views about assessment from merely recording behaviors to recording progress and providing evidence of authentic growth and development. The overall benefit must be for Zuni students.

Educators at the middle school use student portfolios as the focal point of parent/student/advisor conferences. With several years of experience working with teacher professional development portfolios, teachers and administrators dedicated substantial inservice time to designing and implementing guidelines, processes, and criteria for assessing student portfolios. Use of student portfolios at other school sites in the district are at different implementation levels.

Formalizing Use of the Zuni Language in Zuni Schools

The Zuni people have been tenacious and resilient in maintaining their cultural practices. The Zuni language and culture have survived persecution and interference from outside agencies and authorities that have attempted to change or eradicate Zuni cultural values and beliefs. As Zuni youth are prepared to survive and live positively in both the Zuni and mainstream cultures, it is critical to utilize the language and culture in Zuni classrooms. A partnership between the Zuni community and the district supports the aspirations and efforts to further develop the Zuni language and culture.

Historically, Zuni learning was carried out in the context of daily activities in informal and formal settings. Zuni children learned their cultural knowledge and skills by listening, observing, imitating, visualizing, memorizing, participating, repeating and practicing. All knowledge and skills learned had defined and immediately useful purposes. Zuni children learned most life survival skills by the age of fifteen. In almost all learning situations and experiences, people of all ages were teachers, so that children learned in a variety of contexts. It is in this context of Zuni knowledge and traditions that the bilingual program emerged as an integral component of reform.

Since 1978, Zunis have striven to incorporate the Zuni language in the schooling of Zuni children. In the first phase of the program, curriculum materials were developed. Then, various subject area curricula were translated into the Zuni language, including reinterpreting scientific concepts from the Zuni perspective. Presently, schools provide bilingual immersion classrooms in kindergarten and first grade. A grade will be added each year up to grade 6. The primary goal of the bilingual program is to address the needs and educational goals of the Zuni community by maintaining the culture and values through the Zuni language and oral traditions.

Teachers have responded to the bilingual program in both positive and negative ways. One feature of the program is to help teachers recognize that bilingualism is an important part of development for Zuni children because the Zuni culture is in the language. Cultural practices in the Zuni community require the knowledge of oral traditions. For example, many Zuni educators who have achieved higher education have found that knowledge of their language has been critical to maintaining their cultural practices when outside Zuni. However, in an atmosphere of disrespect and antagonism, efforts by the district to move the bilingual program forward are often neutralized by teachers sidestepping and undermining those efforts. Program developers, as well as teachers in the program, are regularly challenged to justify the program and its goals.

The district’s bilingual program has a supportive staff of bilingual teachers from the community, and has developed a training program for bilingual staff that moves well beyond the elementary level of the Zuni language. Also, courses are offered in Zuni that lead to both bilingual and TESOL (Teaching English to Students of Other Languages) certification. The program has assisted several community members become bilingual teachers.

Improvement of Teaching Performance, Particularly in Pedagogy

During planning in 1989, the Zuni superintendent (Hayes Lewis) determined that CREDE research on pedagogy, derived from an analysis of the research literature in diverse populations (particularly Native American), was completely in line with Zuni district goals and asked the research team to begin work at Zuni Middle School. A new principal (Marilyn Riding In—Feathers) also concentrated on improving teaching performance. Her assertive insistence that performance must improve aroused widespread antagonism, despite the assistance provided by the resident and visiting CREDE resources of consultants/coaches.

Reform requires accountability at every level; just as students must be accountable for their progress, teachers must be accountable for their teaching. However, since there is little organized pressure from the community or parental groups for more effective education, efforts by the school administration to establish teacher accountability were met with stiff resistance. From the outset of this project, quality professional development consultation was made available to district teachers on a ‘by-request’ basis, in addition to the scheduled workshops and professional development institutes. Our project funded two full-time years and two half-time years of a professional development position in the district. The middle school was provided a full-time professional development coordinator for two years. When project resources for such assistance were available, coinciding with the introduction of teacher accountability at the middle school, few teachers took advantage of the excellent assistance that was available. Strong teacher resistance to participation became evident. Pressure to not participate for both interested and new teachers was intense. Resistance quickly spread to other schools in the district, resulting in the project's decision to slow efforts toward expanding professional development district-wide.

When it became clear that imposed accountability measures from the state, district, and school would not go away quickly enough to ignore, and with pressure from the state to improve student achievement -- the middle school was put on state-imposed probation because of their consistently low student achievement scores — teachers expressed increased interest in obtaining project assistance. At that time, middle school professional development position had been retuced to only half-time, in addition to taking on responsibilities for the entire district. Teachers at the middle school were frustrated by the situation. They expressed dissatisfaction with project assistance, which they deemed insufficient, inadequate, and ill timed.

One of the initial steps taken in the process of introducing teacher accountability was to identify where CREDE’s Standards for Effective Pedagogy (referred to as 'Effective Teaching Strategies within the Zuni district) corresponded to district and state mandated Essential Teaching Competencies on which the Zuni school district requires administrative evaluations. The revised, coordinated version of the competencies was used by the middle school principal for two years, after which time the Director of Instruction presented it to the School Board. It is now used throughout the district.

Prior to the district's collaboration with CREDE, the middle school principal initiated teacher accountability and a system for structured professional improvement through a teacher professional development portfolio. Teachers were required to demonstrate teaching competence and growth. CREDE then collaborated with her to create a teacher guide to portfolio development coordinated with CREDE Standards for Effective Pedagogy. The guide consolidated district and school evaluation requirements, and also integrated those requirements with professional development activities that encouraged reflection and collegial dialogue. Portfolio artifacts included an instructional unit based on district curriculum High Achievement Outcomes, a videotape demonstrating the Standards for Effective Pedagogy, documentation of student assessment and community involvement (New Mexico Teacher Competencies Five and Nine), a structured Partner Dialogue on an instructional unit, and several optional items.

Some teachers at the middle school were reluctant to engage in the newly formalized and more structured process, but eventually everyone completed a portfolio. Teacher portfolios served as a supplement to year-end teacher evaluations and planning for future professional development. Several excellent portfolios were received. However, a few teachers were placed on a ‘professional development plan’ due to inadequate evidence of meeting teaching competence. This demonstrated an important step in the district's intent to document and improve instructional practices.

Initially, our project team assessed two portfolio artifacts — a unit plan based on the locally developed curriculum, and a videotape of classroom instruction — with the Standards Performance Continuum. In the final year of this project, teachers presented their portfolios to a team of peers and evaluating administrator who performed the portfolio assessment.

The middle school principal presented the teacher portfolios to the School Board at the district’s annual staff evaluation meeting. The Board was impressed with the quality and depth of information the portfolios provided. They expressed appreciation for the principal's steadfastness in her efforts to improve teaching at the middle school, and have since adopted district goals that require all certified staff (teachers, librarians, counselors and administrators) to prepare professional portfolios as part of their evaluation process. The district was able to benefit from the lessons learned at the middle school. Foremost, it is important to provide a clearly stated, consistent message. Secondly, all teachers must be expected to meet the same professional standards.

In addition to creating the infrastructure by which teachers and schools are held accountable for student achievement, the Zuni Public School District provided teacher professional development in numerous areas such as student assessment, bilingual education and curriculum development. Our project assisted primarily with those reform activities in the area of the Standards for Effective Pedagogy. This assistance was integrated with both the middle school Teacher Professional Development Portfolio and the district curriculum.

CREDE collaborated with the district to design, facilitate, and develop local capacity for professional development on the Standards for Effective Pedagogy, and in areas such as student portfolios and authentic assessment, initially as the primary designers and facilitators, and eventually providing minimal assistance in planning and delivery. In the final year of the project, we were not directly involved in any of the district's professional development activities that included two Activity Center workshops (see below).

The provisions made to support professional development of teachers took the form of three workshops designed, delivered, and revised to serve as continuing resources to the district: (1) Introduction to Effective Teaching Strategies; (2) Assessing Effective Teaching Strategies with the Standards Performance Continuum; and (3) Activity Centers.

These workshops are now resources to the district. The district continues to develop and deliver these workshops, and adapt their use to schools in the district beyond the middle school.

Our project team designed summer institutes for middle school teachers in 1997 and in 1999, for all teachers in the district. They also participated in a summer institutes in Connecticut in 2000. At the beginning of 1997-98, in a three-day summer institute, we worked with the district to bring together 60 participants. About half were parents, and the other was school faculty and staff. During the institute, small groups of teachers and parents worked in teams to develop instructional units that integrated Zuni experiences and resources to contextualize the District Curriculum High Achievement Outcomes in meaningful activities. Communication was far more open and authentic than in most teacher-parent interactions. Many excellent units were developed. Some were taught in Zuni classrooms during the following school year.

In 1999, we coordinated a three-day Summer Institute for district teachers and parent mentors (parents who work at the schools to mentor students). At the institute, we modeled all the Standards for Effective Pedagogy, and engaged teachers and parents in the creation of curriculum units that implement CREDE's strategies. On the first day, we modeled Instructional Conversations at Activity Centers on: (a) "Educating Other People's Children," (b) Student Portfolios, (c) Classroom Management, and (d) Assessment Triangulation. On the second day, classroom organization was the topic presented. On the final day, all participants jointly developed a parent mentor handbook for the middle school. In the afternoon, parent mentors discussed how instruction in Zuni might be more effective, while teachers learned how to assess instruction with the Standards Performance Continuum.

Regular, ongoing consultation and coaching were provided for teachers throughout the school year by establishing the position of professional development coordinator. At the beginning of the project, professional development activities were concentrated at the middle school and later expanded to other schools, focusing on new teachers. Realizing the strengths of this kind of sustained professional development, the district provided support for this work by adding two positions to its regular operations.

Strengthening Community and Family Involvement in Schools

For a variety of reasons, many of which are articulated in our paper, "Seven More Mountains and a Map," Zuni families have not found an effective way to influence their schools. Our belief, from the origin of this project, is that education reform cannot be successful without the authentic involvement of parents and community members with teachers and policy makers in important decision-making. Researchers and educators in Native American schools and communities maintain that change cannot occur without the authentic involvement of the community in their children's education, such as in decision-making regarding curriculum, pedagogy, and administration (Ayoungman, 1995; Deyhle & Swisher, 1997; Heckman & Petermen, 1996; Indian Nations At Risk Task Force, 1991; Porter, 1996).

In Zuni, as in other reservation communities, there has been no established structure by which parents are provided a meaningful point of entry for negotiating their points of view. Authentic family and community involvement provides the venue for building mutual respect, self-respect, mutual influence, shared goals, and shared visions. Watahomigie (1995) recommends that schools ask parents what they want for their children. Zuni education leadership worked to create opportunities for "authentic" parent and community involvement.

Research suggests that community involvement has a positive impact on school activities. Overall, studies have identified four aspects of schooling that benefit from community members working in collaboration with school personnel. First, community-teacher relations are positively altered by demystifying teachers’ notions that parents are not interested in the educational success of their children. Second, student behavior and perceptions of self are improved. For example, issues such as absenteeism improved for students in such an integrated program (Jones & Marti, 1994). A third area improved by community involvement is curriculum. Jones and Marti (1994) suggest that there is an increased pressure to acknowledge the cultural identities of students and to include their history and culture in the school curriculum. Fourth, parental involvement also affected policy and administrative decisions, such as requiring that the goals of schools be aligned with community values, beliefs, and practices (Jones & Marti, 1994). Community involvement can be a powerful catalyst that changes the landscape of a monolithic educational system.

Efforts for facilitating community/school co-construction of reform took many shapes in the Zuni schools, including: (a) community inclusion in several important middle school activities, (b) focus groups, and (c) a community survey on attitudes and beliefs on education.

Community Involvement at Zuni Middle School

To encourage community involvement at the middle school, the principal added a required community involvement component to teachers' professional development portfolios. Some teachers were very creative in their efforts to meet this portfolio criterion; for example, one middle school 'teaching team' developed an integrated literature and history unit on Zuni myths, which brought local storytellers to their classroom. Another team developed an integrated social studies, language arts, science, and mathematics unit on solving local problems, one component of which included a presentation from a member of the Tribal Council. Teacher encouragement of community involvement is a required Teaching Competency, and the district presently requires that all teachers provide evidence of community involvement in their professional development portfolios.

To make family members feel more comfortable and welcome at the school, the ZMS administrators designed and implemented the STARs (Students Teaming Around Responsibility and Success) program. This program provides an environment that is conducive to parental input and expression of concerns. Students are assigned to a school staff member or administrator who serves as the student’s adult mentor/advisor. At progress report time, parents are scheduled to meet with their child's advisor. During this conference, student portfolios containing work from all classes, including the details of assignments and grades, are presented to parents. According to the comments received from parent evaluations, this program has been extremely well received. The first round of conferences achieved a 96% turnout rate, up from a long-standing 60% or less! When parents have concerns, they schedule an appointment to meet with a teacher, or meet with all the teachers at a team meeting.

Another program involving community members at the middle school is the Parent and Grandparent Mentor program. These community members help teachers with the school's at-risk student population by providing guidance and assisting students with class work and assignments., and receive training in effective teaching strategies. One valuable role the mentors assume is that of confidante: students often feel more comfortable expressing to a mentor, rather than a teacher, that they do not understand the assignment or the content. One parent commented, "I'll go up to them and ask them, 'Do you understand what you were asked to do? … What does this mean?' And, they'll understand the whole thing, but that one word." The mentors also expressed that they feel that they are able to assist teachers and intervene in classroom management issues.

Authentic involvement of parents is a complex process, and not every form of involvement is equally effective. Over a twelve-month period, 1996-1997, we organized a series of focus groups, consisting of parents and teachers, who were to discuss teaching-and-learning processes. We experimented both with using classroom videotapes as stimuli for discussion, and with having an open agenda to discuss problems of mutual concern. In these sessions, parents often remarked on good teaching methods and recognized the benefits of teachers working to engage students in meaningful learning activities. While some teachers took parents' suggestions to heart and worked to incorporate them into their classes, others were not receptive to parents as a source of knowledge or ideas. The ideas and concerns parents presented in these focus groups stimulated interest in hearing other voices from the community. Therefore, we attempted several other means to facilitate communication between the community and the schools, primarily through a collaboratively developed community survey.

The Zuni leadership consistently asserted that their goals for school reform had the support of the Zuni community. Resistant teachers and administrators contested this claim, typically asserting that ‘the parents I talk to’ want their children to learn standard academics ‘and that’s it,’ and that the teachers, not the parents and elders, know how to teach that subject matter, and furthermore, most Zunis don’t care and have little interest in schooling anyway.

Multiple and varied avenues for meaningful input are critical to facilitate the transformation of parents and other community members into empowered citizens as consultants and resources in the development and co-construction of school reform efforts. The Zuni community survey was developed so that Zuni opinions, beliefs and values about education could be examined. The development of the survey was a collaborative effort between the Zuni Public School District, the Zuni Tribal Council, and CREDE. Therefore, the survey became a means to articulate the desires of the Zuni community regarding the local education reform efforts and their expectations for the schools.

Views on the importance of community perspectives about education are derived from one’s political, theoretical, and humanistic views of child socialization. In the view of Zuni Public School District, the community, and of CREDE, the social context of children’s lives is an integral part of their learning, not an obstacle to be overcome. For example, the learning that occurs at home and during community activities both indicates and enacts the developmental goals the community has for its children. Throughout the history of Native American communities, the values and goals of the community have been in conflict with the educational system of the invading European cultures. Against the assimilationist goals of national education, American Indian communities continued to socialize their children through a broad range of activities including conversations, religious ceremonies, the learning of prayers, and initiation into clans, all ‘education through parental involvement,’ and all learning activities that foster cognitive, social and moral development (Volk, 1994; Personal Communication, William Lewis, 1998). As expressed by a community elder, "If students don’t learn how to be good Zunis, how can they be expected to be good students?" (personal communication, survey participant, 1999). The process of empowerment and intervention in the context of the Zuni community includes understanding the developmental goals and expectations of the community for their children.

Findings from the survey (Rivera et al., 2001) are summarized below. The survey:

The survey findings provide a foundation for an informed course of action to counteract school resistance to change, and corroborate that school reform efforts in curriculum, classroom instruction, and bilingual education are compatible with the goals established by the community 20 years ago, and that those goals still comprise a reliable consensus among community members regardless of age or gender.

Effects

Ayoungman, V. (1995). Native language renewal: Dispelling the myths, planning for the future. Bilingual Research Journal, 19(1), 183-187.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(1), 191-215.

Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2^nd edition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: From assimilation to self-determination. In M. W. Apple (Ed.), Review of Research in Education (pp. 113-194). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Fennema, E., & Reyes, L. H. (1981). Teacher/peer influences in sex differences in mathematics confidence. Final report (Grant report No. NIE-G-79-0112). Wisconsin University, Madison.

Heckman, P. E., & Petermen, F. (1996). Indigenous invention: New promise for school reform. Teachers College Record, 98(2), 307-327.

Hilberg, R. S., Doherty, R. W., Epaloose, G., & Tharp (in press). Development and reliability of the Standards Performance Continuum. In H. Waxman & R. G. Tharp & R. S. Hilberg (Eds.), Observational Research in U.S. classrooms: New approaches for understanding cultural and linguistic diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hilberg, R., Epaloose, G., Doherty, R. W. (1997). Standards Performance Continuum (www.crede.ucsc.edu): Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence at University of California, Santa Cruz.

Hilberg, R., Tharp, R. G., DeGeest, L. (2000). The efficacy of CREDE's standards-based instruction in American Indian mathematics classes. Equity and Excellence in Education, 33(2), 32-39.

Indian Nations At Risk Task Force. (1991). Indian nations at risk: An educational strategy for action (Final Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

Jones, T., & Marti, L. (1994). Parents as collaborators in urban school reform. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Porter, M. K. (1996). Moving mountains: Reform, resistance and resiliency in an Appalachian Kentucky high school. Rural Educator, 18(2), 25-29.

Putnam, R. T., & Borko, H. (2000). What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher learning? Educational Researcher, 29(1), 4-15.

Rivera, H., Tharp, R. G., Bird, C., Epaloose, G., Eriacho, W., Sr., Weebothee, M. (2001). Key findings from the "Zuni Community Survey" on issues of education, teaching, and learning in Zuni schools. Technical Report #1, Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, University of California, Santa Cruz.

Soar, R. S. (1978). Problems in analyzing process-product relationships in studies of teacher effectiveness. Journal of Education, 160(4), 96-116.

Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Tharp, R. G., Lewis, H., Hilberg, R. S., Bird, C., Epaloose, G., Dalton, S. S., Youpa, D. G., Rivera, H., Riding-in-Feathers, M., & Eriacho, W. (1999). Seven more mountains and a map: Overcoming obstacles to reform in Native American schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 4(1), 5-25.

Watahomigie, L. J. (1995). The power of American Indian parents and communities. Bilingual Research Journal, 19(1), 189-194.

Volk, D. (1994). A case study of parental involvement in the homes of three Puerto Rican kindergartners. The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, (14), 89-113.

Appendix A

Project 5.6 Publications and Documents

Dalton, S. S. (1998). California Consortium for Teacher Development (CCTD) & Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) (producers). Teaching Alive! [CD-ROM]. (Available from CREDE, University of California, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064).

Dalton, S. S., Youpa, D. G. (1998). Standards-based teaching reform in Zuni Pueblo Middle and High Schools. Equity and Excellence in Education, 31(1), 55-68.

Feathers, M., Youpa, D. G., Epaloose, G., Hilberg, R. (1998). Professional Development Portfolio and Evaluation System Manual. Zuni Middle School and the Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence, University of California, Santa Cruz.

Hilberg, R. S., Doherty, R. W., Dalton, S. S., Youpa, D. G., & Tharp, R. G. (in press). Standards for effective mathematics education for American Indian students. In J. T. Hankes & G. R. Fast (Eds.), Changing the faces of mathematics: North American indigenous people's perspective (Vol. 5). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Hilberg, R. S., Doherty, R. W., & Estrada, P. (2000). The Standards Performance Continuum: A rubric for observing classroom instruction. Talking Leaves, Vol.4, No.1, Winter. Santa Cruz: University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.

Hilberg, R. S., Doherty, R. W., Tharp, R. G., & Epaloose, G. (in press). Development and reliability of the Standards Performance Continuum. In H. Waxman & R. G. Tharp & R. S. Hilberg (Eds.), Observational Research in U.S. classrooms: New approaches for understanding cultural and linguistic diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hilberg, R. S., Epaloose, G., Doherty, R. W., & Orellana, L. C. (1999). The Standards Performance Assessment Continuum: Observer reliability of a sociocultural standards-based effective teaching scale. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Montreal, Canada.

Hilberg, R. S., Epaloose, G., & Feathers, M. (1999). Generic teacher professional development portfolio and evaluation system manual (www.crede.ucsc.edu): Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence at University of California, Santa Cruz.

Hilberg, R., Tharp, R. G., DeGeest, L. (1999). The effectiveness of CREDE’s standards-based method of mathematics instruction for American Indian students. Paper presented at the American Education Research Association Conference. Montreal, Canada.

Hilberg, R., Tharp, R. G., DeGeest, L. (2000). The efficacy of CREDE's standards-based instruction in American Indian mathematics classes. Equity and Excellence in Education, 33(2), 32-39.

Hilberg, R. S., Tharp, R. G., & Doherty, R. W. (2000). Uses of the Standards Performance Continuum. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Education Research Association, New Orleans.

Rivera, H. (1998). Activity setting observation system: Concepts, training, and reliability. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Education Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Rivera, H., Tharp, R. G., Hilberg, R. S., Bird, C. P., Epaloose, G., Feathers, M. R., Eriacho, W., & Weebothee, M. (in press). In sight of home: School reform in a Native American community. In S. Stringfield & A. Datnow (Eds.), The Imperfect Storm: Successes and failures of school reform efforts in multicultural/multilingual contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tharp, R. G., & Hilberg, R. S. (1998). School/community co-constructed school reform in a Native American community. Talking Leaves, Vol.3, No. 1, Fall. Santa Cruz: University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.

Tharp, R. G., Hilberg, R. S., Rivera, H., Bird, C. P., Epaloose, G., Feathers, M. R., Eriacho, W., & Weebothee, M. (2001). School reform in a Native American community. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Seattle, WA.

Tharp, R. G., Dalton, S., & Yamauchi, L. A. (1994). Principles for culturally compatible Native American education. Journal of Navajo Education, 11(3), 21-27.

Tharp, R. G., Lewis, H., Hilberg, R. S., Bird, C., Epaloose, G., Dalton, S. S., Youpa, D. G., Rivera, H., Riding-in-Feathers, M., & Eriacho, W. (1999). Seven more mountains and a map: Overcoming obstacles to reform in Native American schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 4(1), 5-25.

Waxman, H., Tharp, R. G., & Hilberg, R. S. (Eds.), (in press). Observational research in U.S. classrooms: New approaches for understanding cultural and linguistic diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Youpa, D. G. (1996). A factor analytic study of values and perceived role expectations for early adolescents in a Pueblo Indian community. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Cruz.

Youpa, D. G., Epaloose, G., Tharp, R. G. (1998). Family and community involvement in the Zuni Public Schools. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Education Research Association, San Diego, CA.