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Second
Language Acquisition References
August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language- Carrasquillo, A. L., & Rodriguez, V. (1996). Language minority students Chamot, A., & O'Malley, J. M. (1989). The cognitive academic language Crawford, J. (1991). Bilingual education : History, politics, theory and D'Amato, J. D., & Tharp, R. G. (1997). Culturally compatible educational Dalton, S., Kim, R., Baca, L., de Onís, C., & de Valenzuela, J.
(1997). LeCompte, M., & McLaughlin, D. (1994). Witchcraft and blessings, science Lessow-Hurley, J. (1990). The foundations of dual language instruction. Leyba, C. F. (Ed.). (1994). Schooling and language minority students : A Ovando, C. J., & Collier, V. P. (1985). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Oxford, R. (1992). Language learning strategies in a nutshell : Update Richard-Amato, P. (1996). Making it Happen: Interaction in the second Richards, J., & Rogers, T. (1986). Approaches and methods in language Santa Barbara Discourse Group. (1995). Two languages, one community: Short, D. (1991). Integrating language and content instruction : Strategies Tharp, R. G. (1989). Psychocultural Variables and Constants. American Tharp, R. G., & Dalton, S. (1994). Principles for culturally compatible
Native Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, Ventriglia, L. (1982). Conversations of Miguel and Maria : How children SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ANNOTATIONS
August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for
language-minority children : A research agenda. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press. An up-to-date reformulation of the research agenda for issues related to the
education of language minority students in American schools. The book has four
objectives : “to review what is know about the linguistic, cognitive, and
social processes involved in the education of Limited English Proficient and
Bilingual students; to examine the knowledge base on effective educational programming
for these students and identify issues worthy of more focused attention; to
review and identity the strengths and weaknesses of the traditional methodologies
in this area; and to make recommendations on research priorities in the field,
the infrastructure supporting such research, human resources issues, and the
use of scientific evidence to inform policy and practice in this area.”
(p.3) In addition to an overview and a summary chapter outlining priorities for research,
the volume contains chapters on bilingualism and second language learning, cognitive
aspects of school learning, social context of school learning, student assessment,
program evaluation, studies of school and classroom effectiveness, preparation
and development of teachers serving English language learners, estimating population
parameters, and issues related to the research infrastructure. These annotations
focus only on chapter 2, which addresses the state of knowledge and research
needs for bilingualism and second language learning. The following are the key findings based on a review of the literature on bilingualism
and second language learning : 1) Bilingualism is pervasive throughout the world, but the characteristics
of that bilingualism vary depending on the conditions under which people become
bilingual, the uses they have for the various languages, and the societal status
granted to each language. For example, in official bilingual countries, both
languages may be spoken widely in a variety of settings, and both may have equal
status, however, in the case of immigrants, the first language may be used only
in the home, while the second language is used in public. 2) When socioeconomic status is controlled for, there are no negative effects
of bilingualism on the linguistic, cognitive or social development of children,
and there may even be some general advantages in these areas of mental functioning.
Fears that children will be confused by childhood bilingualism are based on
results of intelligence testing in the earlier part of this century. These results
have been discredited on methodological grounds, and when reinterpreted, the
results were reversed in favor of bilinguals. More recent studies have also
shown bilingual children to be superior on a variety of measures of cognitive
skills. 3) Second language acquisition is a complex process requiring a diverse set
of explanatory factors, including linguistic, cognitive, metacognitive and social/affective
variables. Researchers have looked at second language acquisition from a number
of perspectives, each of which have provided unique insights, but the relationship
among the various perspectives in often unclear. Similarly, questions such as
the extent of involvement of the native language and the importance of age and
concomitant cognitive skills in the acquisition process have been subject to
change over the years. 4) Because of their more advanced cognitive skills, older children acquire
a second language at a more rapid rate than younger children. Similar to #2
above, this finding is in opposition to the commonly held belief that younger
learners acquire a second language more quickly and with a higher level of proficiency.
Research shows that while there is a critical period in the learning of a first
language, this does not imply that there is one for second language learning.
More mature learners generally make faster initial progress in acquiring morphological,
syntactic and lexical aspects of a second language. In adult learners, the association
between age of onset and declining outcomes is most strongly manifested in oral
aspects of proficiency (maintenance of an accent). Some adult learners are nonetheless
capable of near-native performance while some children are unsuccessful in achieving
native-like performance. 5) The degree of children’s native language proficiency is a strong predictor
of their second language development. 6) Second language abilities should be assessed in relation to the uses of
language the learner will require, rather than in isolation as an abstract competence.
For example, older language learners need to learn more complex linguistic structures
on order the respond age-appropriately to the tasks for which they must use
their second language (i.e. secondary school students need to discuss complex
and abstract concepts for which the types of contextual supports that are available
for primary school topics are often unavailable. 7) Research had tried to explain differences in language learning through constraints
such as age, intelligence attitudes and personality. While age and intelligence
have been shown to relate to certain aspects of second language acquisition,
studies of attitudes and personality have not provided satisfactory evidence
that these factors effect language acquisition. 8) Many bilinguals in the United States show a strong preference for English
in a variety of conversational situations, which generally results in a monolingual
English upbringing for their children (“language shift”). Attempts
to explain this shift include both macro-level population perspectives and micro-level
analyses of language change within individual members of those communities.
These shifts are both intra-individual and intergenerational. 9) Evidence from preschool programs suggests that the use of the child’s
native language in preschool settings does not impede the acquisition of English.
However, more studies are needed to understand the effects of the linguistic
environments of institutional settings that serve as the primary base for second
language acquisition. The review of the research points to five significant research needs regarding
bilingualism and second language learning. They are : a) research on the factors
that account for variation in second language acquisition (both individual and
group characteristics); b) an enhanced understanding of the components of English
proficiency and how these components interact, also how the proficiencies in
the two languages of bilinguals are interrelated; c) creation of a common pool
of spontaneous, unstructured speech data for use by researchers exploring meaningful
assessment of second language learners; d) understanding of the interaction
between language and other domains of human functioning; and e) understanding
of the dynamics of language shift in the United States leading to the short-lived
nature of non-English languages. Carrasquillo, A. L., & Rodriguez, V. (1996). Language minority students
in the mainstream classroom. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd. This book covers a wide range of topics and attempts to integrate theory and
practice throughout. It was designed as a text for a second language acquisition
course for teachers planning to enter mainstream classrooms in culturally and
linguistically diverse settings. The goal is to both make mainstream teachers
aware of the special attention needed by limited English proficient students
in their classrooms, and to provide them with some of the tools necessary to
meet these students’ needs in the areas of assessment, appropriate language
environment, challenging curriculum and creative instructional delivery relevant
to both language development and content acquisition. Throughout the book there is an emphasis on four general language principles.
First, in any content area, associated vocabulary and technical terms must be
consciously addressed both in the planning and delivery of instruction. Second,
language functions, such as explaining, summarizing, rephrasing, classifying
and evaluating, need to be carefully integrated into the curriculum, and emphasized
as part of effective academic communication. Third, different classes, topics
and content areas have different language structures and discourse features
which can impede the academic performance of language minority students. Finally,
there are different language skills, such as listening for academic explanations,
reading for specific information, speaking for oral presentations, or writing
of reports, that are emphasized in the classroom for different academic functions.
Many LEP students may not have previously mastered these language skills. The focus of all chapters is on how to make content relevant for English language
learners who may have limited experience, background and proficiency using English
in an academic setting. Chapter 1 expounds on the theory that teachers of LEP
students enrolled in mainstream classrooms can exert a positive influence on
both the academic and linguistic development of these students by providing
appropriate learning contexts and appropriate instruction. Chapter 2 deals with
identifying strengths and weaknesses of language minority students using appropriate
assessments, and provides an overview of the linguistic, academic and cognitive
factors that should be considered in this process. This assessment will help
the teacher to determine appropriate instruction for the student. Chapter 3
looks at culturally sensitive schools and classrooms, and what students, teachers,
administrators and community members can learn from involvement in such schools.
Chapter 4 explores the benefits of bilingual and ESL programs as alternatives
to the mainstreaming of language minority students. By integrating language
and cultural components into the instructional process, and by providing both
academic and social contexts for improving their use of the English language,
these programs are often superior for providing a base for further cognitive
and affective development. Chapter 5 provides a rationale for the importance
of integrating the four components of language development; reading, writing,
speaking and listening. An integrated approach based on students’ personal
experiences can facilitate language development in all four areas. Additional chapters explore instructional strategies that promote both language
and content development in the content areas of language arts, social studies,
science, and mathematics. In language arts the focus is on supporting the meaning
making process in reading comprehension and writing development, through strategies
that focus on making use of students’ prior knowledge, while also expanding
their vocabulary and advancing their language proficiency. In social studies,
an interactive approach is proposed where parallels are drawn between the students’
background knowledge and the social studies curriculum being studied. In science,
both conceptual and practical guidelines are offered for how to integrate the
relevant science concepts and processes with language instruction at the appropriate
language level for the students. In mathematics, a series of strategies are
outlined for providing the age appropriate mathematical concepts and skills
using the language level appropriate to the students. Finally, in the last chapter,
strategies that the teacher can use to help the language minority student adapt
to the mainstream classroom are addressed. for example, being open to a student’s
language strengths and the uniqueness of their background and their perspective
can result in a mutual learning experience between teacher and student. This,
in turn, can further inherence understanding and communication between the two. Chamot, A., & O'Malley, J. M. (1989). The cognitive academic language
learning approach. In P. Rigg & V. Allen (Eds.), When they don't all
speak English : Integrating the ESL student into the regular classroom (pp.
108-125). Suggestions for mainstream teachers on ways to help their second-language students
achieve greater success in content area subjects. Explores why second language
students encounter academic difficulties related to language and prior educational
experiences, and describes an instructional system for developing the academic
language skills and learning strategies of these students in ESL classes, and
how these same techniques can be used by mainstream classroom teachers to further
the academic development of ESL students. A major problem that second language students face is the frequent mismatch
between the language skills that students have acquired at the time that they
are expected to move into all English mainstream classes, and the level of academic
language actually needed to succeed in these settings. Students generally “test
out” of bilingual and ESL programs when they are able to pass language
proficiency tests that focus on social, interactive and basic literacy skills.
However, these are not the same language skills typically used for academic
purposes. ESL students not only need help in the development of their academic
language skills throughout the school day, but they also frequently need help
in how to learn academic content. ESL students have often had limited opportunities
to develop effective learning strategies and study skills. They also frequently
have gaps in their subject matter knowledge, when compared to mainstream students
at their grade level. this can be due to the nature of many ESL and bilingual
programs and /or to the students prior educational background in their home
countries. The cognitive academic language learning approach (CALLA) is an instructional
system designed to develop academic language skills in English for students
in upper elementary and secondary schools. CALLA is intended for three types
of students : 1) students who have developed social communicative skills in
English but have not developed academic language skills appropriate to their
grade level; 2) students exiting bilingual programs who need assistance transferring
concepts and skills from their native language to English, and 3) bilingual
English-dominant students who are less academically proficient in their native
language than in English, and who need to further develop academic English language
skills. The chapter presents the theory , research and practice that comprise
CALLA. There are three basic components of CALLA : grade appropriate content, academic
language development, and learning strategy instruction. These components are
integrated into an instruction system which teaches ESL students how to use
language and learning strategies that they need for success in academic areas
of the curriculum. The CALLA content-based curriculum is aligned with the mainstream
curriculum so that the ESL students are exposed to the same topics they will
encounter in the mainstream classes. Students are phased in to mainstream classes,
starting with science, then math, then social students, and finally, language
arts. Academic language development is critical for the reasons outlined above,
and because it is often underemphasized in traditional ESL classes. Learning strategy instruction is important because students who are consciously
aware of the language learning strategies they are using are better able to
organize these strategies and use them more effectively depending on the particular
language task at hand. These strategies can be divided into metacognitive strategies
(such as evaluating how well one has achieved a learning objective), cognitive
strategies (such as grouping items to be learned in meaningful categories) and
social-affective strategies (such as seeking out peer interactions to assist
learning). In order for a CALLA project to be successful, a great deal of collaboration
is required between mainstream classroom teachers and language specialist teachers
(ESL and/or bilingual). Mainstream content area teachers provide the expertise
in terms of curriculum objectives and content knowledge, and the language specialist
teachers provide the expertise integrating language development activities in
all areas of the curriculum. Both teachers need to work together to develop
specific instruction on learning strategies for all students. The chapter concludes with a model of how to plan a CALLA lesson. The authors
also advocate the use of CALLA for all students, and not just ESL students,
because all students can profit from the integration of language and content
and the development of effective learning strategies. There are five components
of a CALLA lesson : preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. Crawford, J. (1991). Bilingual education : History, politics, theory
and practice. Los Angeles: Bilingual Educational Services, Inc. Separated into four sections, Crawford’s book looks in turn at issues
of history, politics, theory and practice, and how each has impacted the role
of bilingual education in this country. In the first section, the forgotten
legacy of bilingualism in this nation is explored. For example, as there was
no official language policy in the US during our early history, in the mid 1800’s,
many midwestern schools offered instruction partly or entirely in German. The
same was true of French in Louisiana and Spanish in New Mexico. All were supported
by state laws. However, “Americanization” efforts in the 1880’s,
and anti -German sentiment during World War I lead to a rise in language restrictionism.
After World War II, “cultural depravation” theory came to dominate
educational psychology, and the pull-out ESL model became the norm in schools,
with disproportionate numbers of language minority students ending up in special
education classes. Fortunately, bilingual education was reborn in Florida in
the early 1960’s due to the immigration of middle-class, educated Cubans
following the Cuban Revolution. The second section, dealing with political issues, discusses the English Only
movement of the 1980’s, focusing on the battle over Proposition 63 in California,
which made English the state’s “official language”, and lead
to a temporary halt in state funding for bilingual education. During the Regan
Era, despite charges of racism, and its discriminatory potential, the English
Only movement, through the political lobbying of the group U.S. English, continued
to gain power and push their legislative agenda. As cultural conservatism continued
to remain popular, authors such as E.D. Hirsch and Allan Bloom played on the
fears of Americans and decried the fragmentation of Western society. In response
to this, the English Plus movement was formed to promote diversity of language
and culture. William Bennett’s attempts to scale back and restructure federal
bilingual education programs are also discussed. Section three examines the prominent theories that drive bilingual education.
Despite significant research to the contrary, public opinion still holds to
several prominent myths, such as that young children pick up new languages quickly
and effortlessly, that prolonged reliance on the native language reduces incentives
to learn English, and that bilingualism confuses the mind and hinders academic
achievement. For example, basic research on second language acquisition has
determined that : 1) older children are more efficient language learner than
young children; 2) since skills learned in the first language are transferred
to the second language, time spent learning in the first language is not time
lost in developing English; and 3) there is no evidence of cognitive cost in
the development of bilingual children, but rather, bilingualism seems to enhance
children’s thinking skills in the long term. A review of different approaches
that have been used historically to teach a second language is presented, as
is a rationale for why studies show no relationship or a negative relationship
between amount of school exposure to the majority language and academic achievement
in that language. Alternatives to bilingual education, such as structured immersion
and submersion plus ESL are also discussed. The final section deals with bilingual education in practice. The California
Case Studies Project is discussed in detail. The project focused on : a) developing
proficiencies in both the native language and English; b) using language for
both communicative tasks and academic tasks; c) meeting a threshold of native
language skills necessary for academic tasks; d) receiving comprehensible second
language input in a supportive environment; and e) addressing issues of perceived
status. The case of Indian bilingual education is also discussed with a focus
on the Crow Agency, and Crow literacy program. California’s unique diversity
issues are presented, as well as the Los Angeles Master Plan which was implemented
in 1988. The plan included intensive staff development efforts, the formation
of an instructional task force to aid principals in teacher training, bilingual
programs at the secondary level to supplement ESL programs, bilingual pre-kindergarten
instruction, district financed intensive Spanish classes for teachers, and the
promotion of two-way bilingual schools. The final chapter explores the use of
two-way bilingual programs in greater depth. D'Amato, J. D., & Tharp, R. G. (1997). Culturally compatible educational
strategies: Implications for native Hawaiian vocational education programs.
Honolulu, HI: Center for Studies of Multicultural Higher Education. An exploration of explanations for ethnic variability in formal educational
achievement. A review of the literature showed that research can be separated
into three substantive domains : 1) elementary and secondary education, 2) higher
education, and 3) vocational education; and four theoretical domains : 1) individual
attribute models, 2) social effects models, 3) instructional effects models,
and 4) cultural difference models. Individual attribute models relate variability in educational achievement to
the characteristics of individuals. Most recent studies in this area have focused
on locus of control of events, and the idea that achievement varies with individuals’
beliefs about whether their destiny is under their own control or is controlled
by external events or fixed personal attributes such as ability. The more individuals
believe that success comes from effort rather then from luck or ability, the
more they are likely to achieve. Another individual attribute model focuses
on cognitive style, and the belief that variability on students’ methods
of processing information results in variability in school performance. Social effects models look at variables associated with the organization of
society. in this view, beliefs about people’s ability to control their
individual attributes reflect the structural positions of people in society.
Social reproduction theory, the notion that schools themselves play a strong
role in the perpetuation of class structures, gender structures and ethnic or
racial hierarchies, is a prominent social effects model. Instructional effects models relate variability in educational achievement
to variability in instructional processes. Rather than focusing on characteristics
that students and teachers bring with them, instructional effects models focus
on the interactions that occur between students and teachers. These models assume
that there is some set of instructional practices that will optimize learning
for all students, and that these practices can be uncovered by studying the
instructional process. Cultural difference models also relate student achievement to classroom processes
and interactions, but view instructional practices as particularistic rather
than universal. Conflicts between the cultures of students and the cultures
of schools are responsible for widespread school failure among students from
culturally and linguistically diverse groups. As institutions of higher education have begun to be required to provide services
to more culturally and economically diverse students, problems of recruiting
and retaining minority students have caused these institutions to look more
closely at cultural difference paradigms. Likewise, vocational education programs
have been failing to adequately prepare diverse student for the rapidly changing
workplace. The cultural compatibility strategy, although originated in elementary
and secondary education, seems to be appropriate for addressing these issues
in post-secondary and vocational education as well. In considering a cultural compatibility model for vocational education, several
issues must be considered. First, there is a significant age difference between
the elementary students with whom the cultural difference model was first developed
and vocational education students. However, while the problems that arise in
vocational education programs are substantially different from the problems
that arise in elementary schools, the initial basis for cultural compatibility
were the conflicts which were known to emerge in cases of cultural contact between
adults. It seems likely, therefore that a cultural difference interpretation
could be valid in the context of vocational education. Another issue is whether cultural compatibility strategies are equally applicable
to all vocational education programs. More research is needed along these lines,
for programs that are attractive to students and have been shown to have some
payoff in the job market. A third issue is what the costs of a cultural compatibility strategy would
be. Since cultural compatibility strategies only require a change in the method
of instruction, and not in the goals or the content of the curriculum, the cost
of such a change should be minimal. In terms of where to target such changes,
it seems that those who benefit most from cultural compatibility strategies
are those who are least willing to adapt to the culture of formal education;
generally low income minority students. Yet another issue has to do with cultural compatibility in a multiethnic setting.
With whose culture should instruction be compatible? According to D’Amato
and Tharp, “The answer to this question is that instruction needs to be compatible
with the culture of the students. In a classroom, students create their own
culture. This culture is identical with the home culture of no one individual
in the classroom, but represents a novel construction by the students, the product
of their collective adaptation to one another. It is to this culture that teachers,
too, must adapt; if they succeed, then almost be definition they will not leave
any segment of the students out of the instructional picture.” (p. 18) D’Amato and Tharp conclude with a list of six recommendations concerning
the implementation of a culturally compatible educational improvement strategy
with Native Hawaiian vocational education students ; 1) Language development through concentrated experiences in literacy learning
and vocabulary development should be a central feature of such programs. 2) Literacy, problem-solving, cognitive development, and work skill instruction
should be contextualized in use and everyday applications. 3) Small work groups with joint productive activity and instructor participation
in an informal, cooperative role should be one feature of each instructional
activity. 4) Sociolinguistic features of language-during-activity and “talk story”
formats for discussion of content should be one feature on instructional activities. 5) Group achievement and group production motivations are more likely to bring
learning and engagement that individual competitive motivations. 6) Teaching activities using modeling, demonstrations, observations, visual
representations and holistic presentations are more likely to be effective that
strictly verbal and linear presentations. However, language should always accompany
visual and holistic activities. Dalton, S., Kim, R., Baca, L., de Onís, C., & de Valenzuela,
J. (1997). Effective teacher preparation for diverse student populations.
Chicago, IL: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association. A rationale and description of a study of national teacher education programs
dedicated to preparing teachers for linguistically and culturally diverse students.
Argues that the new standards that are evolving, and which all students will
be expected to meet will prove to be impossible without a simultaneous overhaul
of teacher education programs. Presents demographics of the changing student
population in the US, as well as data indicating that the majority of today’s
teachers are inadequately prepared to address the needs of these diverse students.
Most teacher education programs do little to address this discrepancy, with
diversity issues largely segregated into a social foundations course, and completely
overlooked in most other education courses. Teacher education programs need to pay more attention to research findings
which point to needs shared by all students. For instance, teachers should be
taught to interact with students to learn about their backgrounds, interact
with parents in the home , and interact with the community in ongoing ways.
Teacher education programs should also be more involved in collecting data on
their own effectiveness as measured by graduates’ performance as professional
teachers. The study being undertaken will look at different teacher education programs’
views, features and qualities of addressing issues of diversity through surveys
and case studies. The central question to be addressed is how teacher preparation
is responding to increasing diversity in the nations K-12 student population.
The roles of constructivist and sociocultural views of learning, such as McLaughlin’s
Professional Learning Community (PLC) model, are central to the changes in professional
development that are required to adequately meet the needs of students from
linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. Major research questions to date are : 1. What views of language, culture, teaching and learning guide programs that
prepare teachers to teach diverse students? 2. What are the goals and outcomes of successful teacher training programs
and what criteria identify these programs? 3. What are the commonalties of successful teacher preparation programs, and
what makes them unique? 4. What are the exemplary features of successful programs nationally, and how
are these disseminated? 5. To what degree do programs conform to professional standards set forth by
NABE, TESOL and NCATE? 6. What are the implications for professional development for teacher education
faculty involved in delivering these programs? Finally, a timeline for the five year study is outlined. LeCompte, M., & McLaughlin, D. (1994). Witchcraft and blessings,
science and rationality : Discourses of power and silence in collaborative work
with Navajo schools. In A. Gatlin (Ed.), Power and method : Political activism
and educational research (pp. 147-166). New York: Routledge. Describes the dilemmas that field-researchers face when confronting multiple
discourses of representation and belief prevalent among teachers and schools
in American Indian communities. Describes collaborative educational reform efforts
on the Navajo Reservation, and tells stories that illustrate the importance
of traditional discourse in the Navajo community, and how it was co-opted by
members of the educational community. Also how interruptions in, and silences
of discourse complicated the authors' efforts to initiate change and to understand
the dynamics of the context in which they worked. Considers the role of collaborative critical researchers, and how it becomes
impossible as well as undesirable to act as disengaged “others” in
such a situation. When working in such settings it becomes essential to confront
one’s own biases and one’s place within relations of power and privilege.
Teachers and researchers working in culturally diverse settings, need to reconcile
the various cultural ideas about what is important in terms of education, community,
family, etc. In order to accomplish this, the teacher or researcher needs to
share their insights with the different constituencies involved, listen to their
perspectives, and using these diverse views, attempt to promote equity, empowerment
and social justice, especially for those groups that are traditionally silenced. The authors explore the importance of subcultural distinctions, in addition
to ethnic distinctions within a community, and argue that attention to ethnic
distinctions alone, will not adequately describe the diversity within a community.
They describe the tension that arises in a Navajo community from a lack of shared
cultural understandings and the conflict between the discourses of science and
rationality that informed and constrained the educational community, and the
spiritual and cultural discourses practiced by the majority of Navajo community
members. The importance of this study in terms of second language acquisition had to
do with the cultural aspects of language, and the need for teachers to be aware
of the discourse structures and beliefs of students if they are to be successful
in teaching them a second language and the corresponding second culture. In
the case of Navajo students learning English as a second language, they are
also learning the unmarked culture of power as a second culture. To allow students
to have access to and make use of this language and culture of power, while
simultaneously maintaining and valuing their first language and culture is a
difficult task, often made impossible if a teacher lacks the appropriate level
of cultural understanding and sensitivity. Lessow-Hurley, J. (1990). The foundations of dual language instruction.
White Plains, N.Y.: Longman. Book provides an overview of the central issues in bilingual education. Covers
historical and international perspectives on bilingual education, outlines various
dual language program models, discusses the nature of language, language development,
and language ability, the roles of both primary language and second language
instruction in creating communicative competence, the role of culture in schooling,
and legal and political issues of bilingual education. These annotations will
focus on the two chapters on language development and language ability. The
majority of topics covered in the remaining chapters can be found in other annotations
in this bibliography. Modern views of first language development are based on the psycholinguistic
notion that children discover the organizing and meaning making principles of
their first language through hypothesis testing or rule finding. This rule finding
is based on the feedback they receive from more experienced language users when
they test their hypotheses by trying them out. This belief comes from studies
of children’s over-generalizations of language rules. Sociolinguistic studies
of how adults alter their speech so as to give comprehensible input to children
form another important part of the modern understanding of first language development.
Adults use strategies such as speaking slowly, using simple vocabulary in simple
sentences, exaggerating intonation, and repetition to encourage children’s
language development. These strategies and modifications are themselves modified
as a child’s language matures. Awareness of these modifications can be
helpful in developing strategies for second language instruction. First language
development always evolves through the same stages, from crying, to cooing,
to babbling, to echolalic babbling, to one-word utterances, to two-word utterances
using telegraphic speech (abbreviated speech, elaborated on with gestures).
By the age of five, most children have a vocabulary of approximately 8000 words
and an excellent grasp of syntax in their first language. In terms of second language acquisition, debate continues about whether second
language learners rely mainly on transferring knowledge from their first language
or whether they primarily mimic first language development, using hypothesis
testing again. Actually, both of these approaches seem to be used to some extent,
as second language learners tend to use whatever information and abilities they
already have to deal with the complex process. A range of psychological, social,
and linguistic factors are involved in second language acquisition. For example,
the effect of age is quite complex. While younger children will learn a second
language with a native accent and older children and adults may not, the increased
cognitive maturity and first language ability of older children (ages 8-12)
generally allows them to more quickly develop the kind of language proficiency
needed for academic tasks. Individual personality traits, such as self-esteem
and outgoingness can play a role in an individual’s willingness to take
risks and make mistakes in trying out the new language. Also, social factors,
such as the degree of willingness of more advanced speakers to accept and encourage
the communication of a second language learner despite the mistakes that are
made, or the ability of an individual to create situations that generate comprehensible
input play a role in that person’s second language acquisition. The chapter
concludes with a summary of Krashen’s acquisition-learning distinction
and Wong Fillmore’s learner-speaker interactions as examples of models
that provide a framework for further research on language development and the
development of coherent instructional programs. Chapter 5 deals with language ability, communicative competence and how to
assess language skills. Different models of language proficiency have been developed
to define and describe the ability to use language. For example, Canale &
Swain define communicative competence as possessing grammatical competence,
sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
However such models fail to consider the developmental relationship between
the speaker’s first and second languages. In contrast, Cummins’ model
of context and cognitive load attempts to account for the conditions of the
second language learner in the school classroom. Cummins has found that much
of the teaching in the typical classroom falls into the context reduced/cognitively
demanding quadrant of the model. This instruction relies heavily on verbal or
written explanation with little or no concrete clues to meaning while at the
same time focusing on tasks that are new and cognitively challenging. This type
of instruction is obviously quite difficult for second language learners. Cummins’
distinction between BICS (basic interpersonal communication skills) and CALP
(cognitive academic language proficiency) is also discussed. Second language
learners generally are able to acquire BICS in the second language in a relatively
short amount of time from their playmates, the media, and their day-to-day experiences.
However, the language skills required for CALP are quite different that those
needed for BICS, and generally take substantially longer to develop. Failing
to recognize this difference can cause students to be placed in academic situations
for which they are not prepared. Proper language assessment is essential for the placement of language learners
in proper academic settings. Language proficiency is generally assessed using
standardized tests (both written and oral). These can be categorized as discrete
point tests, which assess understanding of discrete structural units such as
phonemes and morphemes, and integrative tests, which measure the individual’s
ability to use the language for communication. Although generally out of favor
in the academic community, discrete point tests are still widely used in public
schools, often due to political reasons, such as legislative mandates to assess
large numbers of language learners quickly, and practical reasons, such as that
discrete point tests are relatively easy to administer. Examples of integrative
tests that generally better demonstrate and individual’s understanding
of a language and its social context are : dictating examples of normal discourse,
cloze testing (filling in the blanks in a passage where words have been left
out), and oral production tasks, such as structured interviews, story retelling,
or descriptions of craft products that have been completed using materials supplied
by the interviewer. Other concerns about language proficiency assessment include
culture bias in either the content or the procedure of the assessment, the testing
situation which may be particularly threatening to some individuals, and the
inherent artificiality and unidimentional nature of any contrived assessment. The final section of the chapter deals with bilingualism and code-switching.
Bilingualism can generally be defined as regular use of two languages. These
individuals routinely make choices about language use that are affected by the
setting and the function of the particular interaction. This includes code switching,
where the individual alternates the use of the two languages from sentence to
sentence, or even within the same sentence. Code-switching is a systematic,
rule-governed language behavior, used for such things as filling a lexical need,
emphasizing a point, or expressing ethnic solidarity. It is not an indication
that the individual is unable to speak either language properly. Despite earlier
studies in the 1960s that found bilingualism to be a handicap in school, more
recent studies that controlled for social and economic factors have found that
additive bilingualism can lead to increased metalinguistic skills, divergent
thinking, sensitivity to communication and general intelligence. Lessow-Hurly
concludes that “children who come to school speaking more than one language
or who learn a second language in school, will benefit academically as long
as both languages are nurtured and developed to the fullest extent.” (p.
56) Leyba, C. F. (Ed.). (1994). Schooling and language minority students
: A theoretical framework (second ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination
and Assessment Center, California State University. A book divided into two sections, the first of which discusses theoretical
foundations and the second of which discusses strategies for implementing instruction
of language minority students based on the theories discussed in Part I. In
Part I, Jim Cummins writes about research on primary language instruction for
language minority students and Stephen Krashen writes about research related
to bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. These annotations
will focus on two of the chapters in Part II, those dealing with implementation
of second language acquisition and primary language instruction. Alan Crawford discusses communicative approaches to teaching the core curriculum
and literacy skills in the second language. His goal is to link the constructivist
paradigm of instruction to communicative approaches and Krashen’s underlying
hypotheses about second language instruction. From this perspective Crawford
states that, “the paradigm shifts that occur within [a constructivist approach
to] second language acquisition, content/language integration in the core curriculum,
and whole language approaches in literacy and the language arts encompass a
broad convergence and overlapping among these processes.” (P. 81) After
presenting a historical perspective of the evolution of second language teaching
approaches and methods, Crawford provides a summary of the most common communicative
approaches and methods (see Richards & Rogers, 1986 in these annotations),
before moving on to the more innovative section on access to the core curriculum.
Crawford outlines the scaffolding process now referred to as Specially Designed
Academic Instruction in English -SDAIE - (formerly known as Sheltered English)
which provides access to the core curriculum for English Language Learners.
Cummins’ continua of cognitively demanding-cognitively undemanding and
context embedded-context reduced are used to discuss the appropriate use of
SDAIE. “The purpose of a specially designed academic instruction approach
to the core curriculum in English is to provide a focus on context-embedded
activities, ensuring that comprehensible input is provided while treating increasingly
cognitively demanding aspects of the core curriculum.” (p. 100) Strategies
that support SDAIE are : 1) speaking slowly, 2) enunciating clearly, 3) using
a controlled vocabulary and simple language structures, 4) using cognates and
avoiding idiomatic expressions, 5) using nonverbal language such as facial expressions,
gestures and dramatization, and 6) the extensive use of manipulatives and concrete
materials such as props, graphs, visuals, transparencies, bulletin boards, maps
and realia. Teachers should also check frequently for understanding using a
variety of questioning formats, establish predictable classroom routines, and
encourage collaboration between more advanced and less advanced English speakers.
Other supportive strategies to use in SDAIE are designing interdisciplinary
units around thematic topics, close collaboration between ESL and content area
teachers, providing audio tapes and study guides or outlines of lessons to students
for further review, and previewing lessons in the students’ native language
when possible, so as to provide an advance organizer. Finally, reading, writing,
and assessment strategies to promote second language literacy are presented. Snow provides an exploration of the research on the need for primary language
instruction for English Language Learners. She takes the perspective that “primary
language instruction is a bridge to literacy, a key link in assisting language
minority students to realize success [in American schools].” (p. 135) After
outlining the range of backgrounds and prior primary language instruction that
language minority students in the US bring to the American classroom, Snow presents
a rationale for instruction in the primary language, based on three perspectives.
First, if one of the goals of our public schools is to create a language competent
society, it is irrational that these same schools are set up in such a way that
they tend to weaken or eradicate the home language of language minority students.
Second, a number of studies have shown certain cognitive advantages to early
bilingualism, such as increased metalinguistic skills that have been linked
to success in learning to read effectively. Third, a strong primary language
component in school can help language minority students create a strong sense
of socio-cultural identity which can mitigate against the negative images of
their language and culture that are often received from schools and society
at large. In the second section, Snow reviews the research on bilingual education, especially
Collier’s (1987) findings that older LEP students (ages 12-15) benefited
from content instruction in their primary language while they were learning
English, and the Ramirez Report (1991) comparing results of early exit transitional
bilingual programs, late exit bilingual programs, and structured immersion in
Sheltered English. The Ramirez Report concluded that substantial instruction
in the primary language does not impede the acquisition of English language
skills, and that it simultaneously increases students ability to master content
area subjects. Parental involvement was also found to be highest in the late
exit bilingual program. More recent studies have documented the instructional
practices used in exemplary bilingual programs. At the secondary level, Lucas,
Henze and Donato found that exemplary programs tend to have the following characteristics
: 1) place a high value on students’ language and culture; 2) make concrete
their high expectations of LEP students; 3) school leaders make the education
of language minority students a priority; 4) staff development is explicitly
designed to help teachers serve LEP student more effectively; 5) a wide variety
of courses and programs for LEP student are offered; 6) counseling program gives
special attention to the needs of LEP students; 7) parents of LEP students are
encouraged to become involved in their children’s education; and 8) school
staff members share a commitment to empower language minority students. Additional
studies and reviews (i.e. Tickunoff, 1991; Garcia, 1991) point to similar implications,
such as that teachers of culturally diverse students need to relate academic
content to the children’s own environment and experience, should integrate
the curriculum around thematic units, should create active endeavors for students
as often as possible, and should apply what students are learning in a meaningful
context. Finally, Snow presents two program models that place high value on the use
of primary language instruction. The Case Studies Project, designed by the California
State Department of Education, is based on “the theory that academic success
demands higher order linguistic and cognitive skills which, once developed,
will transfer from the primary language to English.” (p. 155). The five
basic principles of the model are : 1) that development of proficiencies in
both the native language and in English have positive effects on academic achievement;
2) that language proficiency involves the use of language both for communicative
tasks and academic purposes; 3) that reaching the threshold of native language
skills necessary to complete academic tasks forms the basis for similar proficiency
in English; 4) that communicative competency in the second language is a function
of comprehensible second language instruction in a supportive environment; and
5) that interactions between teachers and students and among students are effected
by the perceived status of students, and this in turn, effects student outcomes.
The two-way Bilingual Immersion Model is gaining support across the country.
In this model, language minority and language majority students share classes
where both languages are used for instruction. Key features of this model are
: long term treatment, comprehensible input in two languages, focus on academic
subjects, separation of languages for instruction, additive bilingual environment,
balance of languages groups roughly equal, sufficient use of minority language,
opportunities for speech production in the minority language, home-school collaboration,
and high quality instructional personnel. Snow concludes with a discussion of some of the challenges that still remain
in developing a sound framework for primary language instruction. For example,
little work has focused on secondary school classrooms, few schools offer full
content programs for students learning English, many school districts lack the
school site leadership, staff availability and staff willingness to take the
training necessary to offer sufficient primary language instruction, there is
a limited availability of good curriculum for primary language content area
instruction, inadequate time to develop suitable materials, and inadequate tools
for the assessment of primary language learning. Additionally, the vast a majority
of what has been done, has been with native Spanish speakers; studies of primary
language instruction for other language groups and especially models for multilingual
classrooms are in short supply. Despite these difficulties, the evidence showing
the advantages of primary language instruction in the development of literate
behavior that is a prerequisite for academic success requires a new vision of
how we teach language minority students in our schools. As Snow notes, “the
bridge to literacy is not crossed simply by the use of the primary language
for instruction, but rather by primary language instruction in combination with
interactive, cooperative, student centered teaching that equips students with
the academic literacy practices needed for success in school. In other words,
primary language instruction must draw on effective techniques and strategies
used in native, second and foreign language teaching.” (p. 159-160) Ovando, C. J., & Collier, V. P. (1985). Bilingual and ESL classrooms:
Teaching in multicultural contexts. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. A book designed for bilingual and ESL teachers, it provides a blend of research
and practice in classroom settings. Two of its major themes are : 1) Language
and culture are integral components of the instructional process, and as such
are important foundations upon which cognitive and affective development are
based, and 2) bilingualism and intercultural awareness are sources of great
human richness that should be encouraged rather than stymied. The volume contains
eight chapters on : students; politics, programs and resources; language; culture;
social studies, music and art; mathematics and science; assessment; and school
and community. This annotation focuses on the two chapters on language and culture. The chapter on language begins with a review of the research in both first
and second language acquisition. Brown’s analysis of acquisition order
of morphemes, Krashen’s distinction between acquisition and learning and
his input hypothesis, various studies of the socioaffective filter and how it
can hinder L2 acquisition, Cummins’ distinction between BICS and CALP,
Lambert’s notion of additive and subtractive bilingualism, and Dulay, Burt
& Krashen’s work on the influence of L1 on L2 learning are all outlined.
The second section discusses teaching native language arts from various perspectives,
such as teaching language arts to native speakers, teaching the standard version
of the language (i.e. Standard English or Standard Spanish) as a second dialect,
and teaching the language as a second language. It should be noted that the
same teacher may be engaged in all three activities at the same time, in the
same class. The third section deals with methods of teaching a second language.
Older methods, such as Grammar-Translation, Audiolingual, Direct and Cognitive
are presented first, followed by newer methods such as Silent Way, Sugestopedia,
Community Language Learning, Total Physical Response, and the Natural Approach.
Organizing a syllabus around Structural, Situational, and Notional-Functional
themes is also discussed. The final section of the language chapter deals with methods of teaching in
a bilingual classroom. While emphasizing the point that the methods a bilingual
teacher uses to teach in the content areas are generally the same as those used
by any other teacher, the authors also note that the variables of language and
culture must be taken into account. For example, there are different ways to
balance the use of the two languages in the classroom depending on the needs
of the students and whether the class is designed to be a transitional bilingual
class, a maintenance bilingual class or a two-way bilingual class. In the Concurrent
Approach the teacher uses both languages interchangeably in the teaching context.
This approach has been criticized for producing compound bilinguals rather than
coordinate bilinguals and for providing too much direct translation. A more
structured approach is Preview-Review, where a lesson is introduced in one language,
presented in the other language, and then reviewed in the first language. In
Alternate-Language Approaches the two languages are separated and instruction
alternates between the two either on alternate days, alternate half-days, or
alternating by subject area (i.e. science in Spanish and math in English). The
principle code-switching patterns of fluent bilinguals are also discussed. The chapter on culture focuses on the culture concept as a way to give meaning
to human activities. the first section discusses both anthropological and popular
notions of the meaning of culture. From the anthropological perspective, three
of the most basic traits of culture are that it is shared by members of specific
social groupings, that its components are interrelated so that changing one
aspect of a culture has ramifications in other aspects as well, and that culture
is learned rather than inherited. In contrast, popular views of culture often
equate it with “high civilization’” defined as an appreciation
for the literature and fine arts tradition of Western civilization. Another
popular view of culture is the “set of traits” approach whereby knowing
about a culture involves knowing about its significant historical events and
heroes, typical traditions, and culturally coded concepts and terms. While supporters
of the “set of traits” approach to teaching culture argue that this
type of cultural awareness reduces prejudice, it also portrays culture as a
static list rather than as a malleable process and can lead to stereotyping.
These popular views also do not provide an adequate view of culture in the classroom.
Additionally, in our increasingly diverse nation, more and more of us are bicultural
or multicultural, able to function comfortably in more than one set of cultural
assumptions and behaviors. Similarly, cultural pluralism occurs when “members
of diverse cultural, social, racial, and religious groups are free to maintain
their own identity and yet simultaneously share a larger common political organization,
economic system, and social structure.” (p. 110) The culture concept plays out in the classroom in a number of ways. For example,
explanations of why a certain segment of the school population is not succeeding
are heavily colored by the assumptions on which they are based. Cultural Deprivation
and Cultural Deficit models of explaining the failure of numerous language minority
students are based on the assumption that the cultural traits of some immigrant
groups are undesirable, and lead to the strategy of attempting to change the
child. Marked and Unmarked languages and cultures describe the relative social
values placed on different languages and cultures. Marked languages are associated
with less social status and political power. Similarly, Unmarked culture in
the U.S. is that associated with White, middle-class, Protestant, non-ethnic,
English-speaking groups. Most curricula in public schools emphasize the Unmarked
cultural values. Cultural Relativism, the belief that there are no universal
norms that are valued for all cultures, is one possible way to combat the ethnocentrism
and stereotypes that can arise from the subjugation of marked culture to unmarked
culture in schools. Another important point is that significant variation can occur within as well
as among different cultural groups. Socioeconomic Status is one factor that
often accounts for variations in cultural beliefs, values and behaviors within
a cultural or ethnic group. Mead’s three categories of cultural transmission
and acquisition of ethnicity are discussed : Postfigurative Transmission, where
children learn their culture from respected elders, Cofigurative Transmission,
where children have multiple cultural role models, both elders and contemporaries,
and Prefigurative Transmission, where children predominantly create cultural
change. Home-School Mismatch in terms of language variation and cultural difference
is seen as one of the factors that has lead to the persistence of cultural deficit
models of education for culturally and linguistically diverse students. The final section of the chapter deals with research on culture and education.
Significant research on cognitive styles and cultural background and differences
in preferred social interaction are presented. The overarching theme is that
the effects of culture play an important part in all aspects of the teaching-learning
process. Oxford, R. (1992). Language learning strategies in a nutshell : Update
and ESL suggestions. TESOL Journal, Winter(92/93), 18-22. Presents a brief synopsis of language learning strategy research as well as
practical suggestions for teachers and a summary of instructional implications.
Language learning strategies are “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or
techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress
in developing L2 skills.” (p.18) It is often difficult to determine the
strategies that language learners are using, except when the learners are willing
and able to describe their internal behaviors and thinking. Research on L2 learning strategies is a fairly new field, dating to the mid-70’s.
Early studies tended to focus on cognitive and metacognitive strategies that
L2 learners employed. Studies have also focused on the differences in strategies
between effective learners and less successful language learners. These findings
indicate that effective L2 learners are aware of the specific strategies that
they use, and have a clear sense of why they employ them. Additionally, these
learners choose strategies that work well together, and that match the language
task in which they are engaged. In contrast, less successful learners vary in
their awareness of the strategies that they are using, and apply the strategies
in a fairly random fashion, without consideration of how the strategies match
the language task. Explicit L2 strategy training had been found to be successful in most studies.
However, most studies have tended to focus on cognitive and metacognitive strategies
while largely ignoring affective and social strategies, which could further
enhance the effectiveness of such strategy training. The most consistent finding
of these studies is that strategy training is most effective when the strategies
are made explicit. “Learners are told overtly that a particular behavior
or strategy is likely to be helpful, and they are taught how to use it and how
to transfer it to new situations. Blind training, in which students are led
to use certain strategies without realizing it, is less successful, particularly
in the transfer of strategies to new tasks. Strategy training succeeds best
when it is woven into regular class activities in a normal basis, according
to most research.” (p.19) Recently, researchers have been engaged in attempting to categorize the strategy
systems that L2 learners use. These categories include : 1) systems related
to behaviors of successful language learners; 2) systems based on psychological
functions, such as cognitive, metacognitive and affective; 3) linguistically
based strategy systems dealing with inferencing, language monitoring, formal
rule-practicing, and functional practicing; 4) systems based on particular language
skills, such as oral production, vocabulary learning, reading comprehension
or writing; and 5) systems based on different types of learners. However, the
problem with these classification systems is that the systems are largely competing,
rather then coherent, and that there is no widely accepted system for classifying
these strategies. In an attempt to place these strategies in a, more coherent and comprehensive
typology, Oxford adds her own strategy system to this list. She divided strategies
into six sets, “based on the theory that the learner is a ‘whole person’
who uses intellectual, social, emotional, and physical resources and is therefore
not merely a cognitive/metacognitive information processing machine.” (p.20)
Oxford’s six strategy groups, into which all L2 learning strategies can
be placed, are : 1) affective; 2) social; 3) metacognitive; 4) memory-related;
5) general cognitive; and 6) compensatory. Oxford concludes with a discussion of some of the implications of the learning
strategy research for ESL instruction. These include : helping students become
aware of the strategy choices that they are making, helping students recognize
the power of consciously using language learning strategies, weaving learning
strategy training into regular classroom activities, and helping students make
use of multiple strategies. Richard-Amato, P. (1996). Making it happen: Interaction in the second
language classroom. White Plains, NY: Addison-Wesley. Making it Happen provides a fairly balanced look at both theory and practice
in the second language classroom. Part I provides a theoretical background on
language teaching principles. Part II explores a number of methods and activities
that promote second language development. Part III focuses on three practical
classroom issues : classroom management, selecting class materials, and teaching
in the content areas. Part IV describes a number of actual programs in both
ESL and foreign language instruction ranging from kindergarten through college
level. The final section provides four related readings by Chomsky, Rod Ellis,
Vygotsky and Cummins to supplement the theoretical background proved in Part
I. In this abstract, I will review 4 chapters, 2 from Part I and 2 from Part II.
Chapter 3 outlines the development of an interactional approach to language
development. Vygotsky’s notion of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
and Krashen’s notion of i+1 comprehensible input both figure centrally
in an interactional approach. Vygotsky’s emphasis on society as the determiner
of development (as opposed to Piaget’s emphasis on biology) has profound
implications for how language (or any subject) should be taught. As Richard-Amato
says, “This cooperative relationship is particularly important to second
language teaching, for it leads to meaningful interaction about some content
of interest. Through such interaction the teacher is naturally attuned to the
students’ emerging skills and abilities. Otherwise, meaningful communication
could not take place.” (p. 40) Brown’s work with Motherese, and its
focus on content rather than on form is also discussed. Richard-Amato argues
that language teachers should treat student “errors” as evidence that
language learning is taking place. She believes that the key to successful language
acquisition is the engagement of students in situations where “all the
interlocutors desire to understand and be understood.” (p. 45) For this
reason, neither free conversation with native speakers, nor TV or radio generally
produce comprehensible input. A good interactional approach to language development
should use direct instruction of grammar sparingly, and emphasize instead, metacognitive,
cognitive and social and affective strategies that learners can appropriate. Chapter 4 carries the argument for an interactional approach to language learning
forward into the realm of skills integration with the presentation of an interactional
approach to reading and writing. Richard-Amato believes that, “developing
literacy and other abilities in a second or foreign language should involve
students in very positive, authentic, and highly motivating experiences. It
is when learning a language is equated with the mastery of separate sets of
skills and subskills that students often run into difficulty.” (p. 62).
The four basic language skills (reading , writing, speaking, and listening)
readily lend themselves to integration in natural language using settings. In
an interactive view of reading, meaning is created by the reader through interaction
with the text (the psycholinguistic view) and through interaction with other
students, the teacher, family members and the community at large (the sociolinguistic
view). Motivation for interactional reading can be provided by allowing students
to predict content and outcomes of the text and to relate the text to the students’
prior knowledge and personal and cultural experiences. Similarly, the interactive
view of writing focuses on the writer bringing her personal values, relationships,
experiences, prior knowledge, culture, etc. to the writing process. The writer
also interacts with other writers (and readers) in school, at home and in the
community, and with other texts, both written and oral. The writing experience
for language learners can be facilitated by both encouraging and pointing out
the roles that these different interactions can play in developing one’s
writing. Chapter 10 looks at the effective use of storytelling, role play and drama
as methods of facilitating language development. The dramatic nature of these
activities frequently allow students to forget the self-consciousness often
associated with learning another language, and additionally, can aid in heightening
self-esteem, motivation and spontaneity. Storytelling is a traditional teaching
tool in many cultures as well as a source of entertainment. It can serve as
a medium by which learners can participate in language before they actually
become proficient, and can serve as a motivation for learning more. A number
of possible story telling activities are presented. Role playing is usually
highly appealing to students because it allows them to be creative and to temporarily
put themselves in someone else’s place. It can also be used as a safe or
“anonymous” way of discussing relevant social problems or uncomfortable
social situations. Finally, drama, which is similar to the other two categories,
but which generally reverts to situations that are written down in play form
to be memorized (or read, as in readers’ theater) and acted out, provide
many of the same benefits previously noted. Chapter 12 outlines three approaches to literacy development that build upon
the natural language framework developed in Chapter 4. The assumption is that
the student’s goal in developing literacy skills is to effectively create
meaning as a reader and a writer. They also assume that every student, regardless
of previous literacy skills, brings to the classroom a rich fund of knowledge
and experiences to share with others. The Language Experience Approach is based
on students writing by dictation to the teacher what they already know and can
express verbally. They can then read what the teacher has written in their own
words. Thus, the students’ first reading materials come from their language
and context. The advantage of this approach is that the text is always both
cognitively and linguistically appropriate. Another approach is the Literature-Based
Curriculum. Writing, speaking, listening and reading are all related to the
literature that is used. Advantages are that literature is authentic, it can
provide engaging input for language acquisition, it can provide contexts for
language learning in which the language becomes more memorable, and it exposes
students to a variety of different cultures and subcultures. Effective prereading,
reading, and post-reading components are discussed. Finally, the Writing Workshop
approach is described. This approach focuses on writing as a communal process.
Students alternately write independently and hold conferences with the teacher
and with groups of peers. The feedback given in these conferences is used as
the basis for editing the writing, with is then taken to another conference.
The process continues until the author is satisfied with the product. Richards, J., & Rogers, T. (1986). Approaches and methods in language
teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Provides a detailed account of major 20th century trends in language teaching.
Covering eight different models of language teaching, for each, it describes
the underlying theories of language and language learning, the learning objectives,
the syllabus model used, the roles of teacher, learners and materials within
the approach, and the classroom techniques and procedures that the method uses.
Also begins with a chapter on the history of language teaching. In terms of the changing rationale for second language study, and the related
classroom techniques, the authors argue that, “Tradition was for many years
the guiding principle. The Grammar-Translation Method reflected a time-honored
and scholarly view of language and language study. At times, the practical realities
of the classroom determined both goals and procedures, as with the determination
of reading as the goal in American schools and colleges in the late 1920s. At
other times, theories derived from linguistics, psychology or a mixture of both
were used to develop a both philosophical and practical basis for language teaching,
as with the various reformist proposals of the nineteenth century. As the study
of teaching methods and procedures in language teaching assumed a more central
role within applied linguistics from the 1940s on, various attempts have been
made to conceptualize the nature of methods and to explore more systematically
the relationship between theory and practice within a method.” (p.14) The Oral Approach, which was developed in Britain from the 1930s through the
1960s, and which still influences many modern texts, evolved out of the Direct
Method of the late 1800’s. The main characteristics of the approach are
an emphasis on spoken language, use of the target language for instruction,
new language points introduced situationally, focus on essential vocabulary,
grammar forms introduced from simple to complex, reading and writing introduced
after sufficient grammar had been introduced. The Audiolingual Method came out of structural linguistics, a view proposed
by American linguists in the 1950s. In this view, learning a language was though
of as learning the building blocks of the language and the rules for how this
building blocks are combined, from phoneme to morpheme to word, to phrase, to
sentence. The focus was on spoken language. This scientific approach to language
lead to a scientific approach to language teaching. The principles of the Audiolingual
Method are that foreign language learning is basically a process of habit forming,
language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented in the spoken
form and in the target language, analogy provides a better foundation for language
learning than analysis, and the meaning of words held by a native speaker can
be learned only in a linguist and cultural context and not in isolation. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) -- also known as the notional-functional
approach -- came out of British language teaching in the 1960s. The fundamental
claim of CLT is that language is acquired through communication, and that language
learners must therefore be provided with opportunities to use the language for
communicative purposes in meaningful contexts. The basic principles of the approach
are : make communicative competence the goal of language teaching, and develop
procedures for the teaching of the four language skills (reading, writing, speaking
and listening) that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. Total Physical Response (TPR), developed by psychologist James Asher in the
1970s, is a language teaching methods built around the coordination of speech
and action, and attempts to teach language through physical motor activity.
It is a natural approach that sees second language learning as a parallel process
to first language learning. Asher sees language as being composed of abstractions
and non-abstractions, and believes that the teaching of abstractions should
be delayed until students have developed an initial cognitive map of the target
language. Basic principles are that : students should develop basic listening
competence before they are required to speak, listening comprehension is facilitated
by responding physically to spoken language, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly
once listening comprehension is developed, TPR has the advantage of utilizing
the whole brain of students rather than just the left brain as in typical language
instruction, and the approach reduces stress by not requiring students to produce
language and diverting their attention through physical movements. The Silent Way, developed by Caleb Gattegno, evolved out of his use of Cuisenaire
rods for the teaching of reading. Gattegno was skeptical of the role of linguistic
theory in language teaching methodology, instead, basing his approach on more
generalized learning theories focusing on learning through discovering or creating
rather than remembering and repeating, learning mediated by the use of physical
objects and learning facilitated by problem solving. Build upon a structural
syllabus, lessons are planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary.
The goal is to teach oral and aural language at a basic level of proficiency,
with language items introduced based on their grammatical complexity, their
relationship to what has been taught previously, and the ease with which items
can be presented visually. Students use charts, Cuisenaire rods, and other physical
props as topics of conversation. Community Language Learning (CLL) was developed by Charles Curran in the 1970s,
based on his Counseling-Learning techniques from psychological counseling. CLL
draws on the counseling metaphor to redefine the roles of the teacher as councilor
and the students as clients in the language classroom. The basic approach of
CLL is :1) the learner and knower agree to language learning; 2) the learner
presents to the knower in L1 a message he or she wishes to deliver to another;
3) knower listens and the other learners overhear; 4) knower restates learner’s
message in L2; 5) learner repeats the L2 message form to its addressee; 6) learner
replays (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the messages exchanged during
the language class. From these message sets, students begin to holistically
piece together basic understandings on the target language. From this perspective,
the foreign language learners’ tasks are to learn the sound system, assign
fundamental meanings, and construct a basic grammar of the target language. The Natural Approach, outlined by Tracy Terrell in 1977, and further developed
by Terrell and Krashen, attempts to develop a model of language teaching that
makes use of the naturalistic principles researchers have identified in studies
of second language acquisition. The Natural Approach focuses on exposure to
comprehensible input (“i+1”), optimizing emotional preparedness for
learning, a prolonged period of attention to what language learners hear before
they try to produce language, and a willingness to use written materials as
a source of comprehensible input. The focus on comprehension is similar to that
in TPR. The Natural Approach is designed to develop basic communication skills
- both oral and written, based on the needs of the students. The responsibilities
of the students include providing information about their specific language
learning goals, taking an active role in ensuring comprehensible input, and
deciding when to start producing speech, and when to upgrade it. The final method described is Sugestopedia, developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator
Georgi Lozanov. Sugestopedia attempts to harness the non-rational and non-conscious
influences that human beings are constantly responding to, and to redirect them
to optimize learning. Taking ideas and techniques from yoga and Soviet psychology,
Sugestopedia attempts to create an optimal learning environment that greatly
increases the ability of students to memorize materials. The basic principles
of Sugestopedia are : 1) authority - the teacher exudes total self confidence
in the approach and is seen by students as an authority figure; 2) infatilization
- students take the part of children in order to regain the self-confidence,
spontaneity and receptiveness of a child; 3) double-planedness - learning is
facilitated not only by the instruction, but by the environment as well; 4)
intonation, rhythm, and music - varying the tone and rhythm of materials helps
prevent boredom, while the musical background helps to create a relaxed background. The final chapter, gives a brief discussion of how to compare and evaluate
the various methods presented, in order to create an approach that meets the
needs of a given teacher or student. Santa Barbara Discourse Group (1995). Two languages, one community :
An examination of educational opportunities. In R. Macias & R. G. Ramos
(Eds.), Changing schools for changing students : An anthology of research on
language minorities, schools & society (pp. 63-106). Los Angeles, CA: UC
Linguistic Minority Research Institute. A case study attempting to understand the patterns of life in a 6th grade bilingual
classroom as a process of community construction, and the formation of one community
with two languages. Argues that “differences in the community constructed
within and across classrooms lead to differential opportunities for participating,
learning, and accessing school knowledge.” (P.64) Therefore, the degree
to which students have opportunities to enhance and vary their community participation
is related to their opportunities to learn. Researchers took an interactional
sociolinguistic approach, in which they shifted roles back and forth between
community member and researcher. Through this process, they came to see community
as a referent for the particular class, as a metaphor for life in the classroom,
as an organizing principle for constructing the life of that particular class,
and as a framework for studying other cultures. One way in which this community
construction process was used was to support academic study. Much of this work is grounded in Giddens’ theory of structuration of social
practices, which claims that both human agents and social institutions are continuously
being produced and reproduced across time and space, and that neither has primacy
over the other. This implies that an individual’s actions “are framed
by [that individual’s] knowledge of societal norms and expectations, derived
from participating in small particular societies such as classrooms, and other
groups outside of the classroom.” (p. 81) In the particular classroom in this study the development of these societal
norms and expectations was facilitated by the teacher’s belief that the
community of the classroom is constructed by all members of the class over the
entire course of the school year. For example, while in many classes the process
of structuring the classroom community is largely governed by the teacher, and
takes place during the first few weeks of school, in this case, community construction
was seen as an ongoing process. The societal norms and expectations developed
in this class extended to the use of two languages, English and Spanish. Students
were expected to use both languages to work together collaboratively, to show
respect for each other, to tie their actions to those of others, and to form
particular types of relationships. Students were also aware that the teacher facilitated these relationships through
her own use of both languages. In this way, the students came to see their use
of language and their common community as resources that were both unique and
valuable. This type of positive socially constructed learning environment was
more likely to allow students to demonstrate their academic potential than would
be the case in other situations. The value of research such as this, that studies
how exemplary teachers construct communities that provide opportunities for
all students, is that it provides a basis for challenging the status quo and
evaluating practices that limit such opportunities. Short, D. (1991). Integrating language and content instruction : Strategies
and techniques : National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Provides a rationale and an outline for an approach to enhancing the academic
language learning environment for Limited English Proficient (LEP) students.
The integration of language and content involves the incorporation of content
material into language classes as well as the modification of language and materials
in content classes. The two goals of this approach are to provide LEP students
with comprehensible input as often as possible during the school day, and to
bridge the gap that separates language and content classrooms in many schools. The integrated language and content approach relies on three principle factors
that should be addressed by both the language and the content teachers : 1)
the use of multiple instructional media; 2) the enhancement of students’
language and thinking skills; and 3) student-centered organization of instruction.
Using a wide variety of instructional media increases the amount of comprehensible
input that students receive. Language and thinking skills that should be explicitly
addressed will depend on the content to be learned (i.e. categorizing skills
for a science lesson on types of organisms in streams). Student-centered organization
allows for a greater degree of student-student interaction, and allows the teacher
to serve as a facilitator, providing help and guidance as needed. The integrated approach is outlined in a series of steps for teachers to follow.
The first step is a series of preparation activities that teachers should consider
while planning to implement this approach. The most essential component is the
close cooperation and collaboration between the content and language teachers.
The initial steps are : 1) observe each others’ classrooms; 2) identify
specific language and academic difficulties and demands that particular subjects
present; 3) examine the content material to be covered; 4) select a theme to
develop several lessons around; 4) identify objectives of the unit; 5) identify
key terms and words to introduce in advance; 6) look for additional text materials
that are appropriate for the language level of the students; and 7) adapt any
written materials to be used to the language level of the students. The second important feature is to help the ELL students adjust to the norms
and procedures of the classroom. Strategies to facilitate this include : announcing
the lesson’s objectives and activities at the start of the class, writing
legibly at all times, developing and maintaining class routines that ELL students
can expect, without relying solely on language cues, list and review all instructions
step-by step, and have students work on each step before moving on to the next,
present important information in a variety of ways using a variety of media,
and provide summations of important material at various points throughout the
lesson. Likewise, the teacher should adjust her teaching style to address the language
needs of ELL students. These adjustments should include a more student centered
approach to teaching and learning, a reduction and adjustment in the amount
and level of teacher talk, and increase in the amount of inferential and higher
order thinking questions asked, and a recognition that ELL students will make
language mistakes. Another approach to adjusting teaching style is to adapt
traditional ESL techniques to the content classroom. This could include bringing
more realia into lessons, doing more demonstrations, using video to supplement
and accompany text, doing more hands-on activities, incorporating music and
jazz chants into lessons, and scheduling more sustained silent reading sessions. In addition to needing coaching and practice with their language skills, many
ELL students likewise need coaching and practice with their cognitive processing.
Teachers can facilitate this through checking students’ comprehension of
material orally before introducing reading and writing activities, considering
the different learning styles of individual students, incorporating cognitive
skill activities (i.e. predicting, classifying, justifying) into daily lessons,
explicit teaching of study skills such as outlining, mapping, and constructing
time lines, teaching strategies for working with texts such as using organizational
features of books and synthesizing information from passages, explicit instruction
in planning large projects such as essays and research reports, and presenting
models of writing assignments, and explaining the model and what makes it a
good product. A final consideration for teachers planning integrated language and content
instruction is how they will check student comprehension of the content. Strategies
for doing this include : using strip stories to summarize a lesson and having
students put them in the proper order, using dialogue journals where students
can reflect on what they have learned or what they didn’t understand, using
drama or role play as a summative evaluation, use of reading logs similar to
dialogue journals, using cloze exercises to check comprehension, summarizing
stories or lessons by writing news headlines or by drawing illustrations and
describing them, using performance assessments such as experiments, using the
Language Experience Approach, where students dictate their experience to the
teacher, an aid, or a peer with more advanced language skills, or having students
write character diaries. Short concludes with a outline for developing integrated instruction lesson
plans. Tharp, R. G. (1989). Psychocultural Variables and Constants. American
Psychologist, 44(2), 349-359. Explores evidence in favor of the cultural compatibility hypothesis that more
effective teaching of children is possible when instruction is compatible with
natal culture patterns. How can these compatibilities be created in the classroom?
Resent research has focused on a cultural difference model, emphasizing cognitive
and behavioral strengths, rather than on a cultural deficit model. Most cultural compatibility data come from studies of Native Americans in the
western US, Alaska, Canada and Hawaii. Much of this study is based on data from
the KEEP project in Hawaii, and a subsequent KEEP model implemented on a Navajo
reservation in Arizona. Tharp found that four classes of variables have been most studied in research
on how classrooms can be adapted to meet the needs of children of different
cultures. These variables are : social organization, sociolinguistics, cognition
and motivation. According to Tharp, “a central task of educational design
is to make the organization of teaching, learning and performance compatible
with the social structures in which students are most productive, engaged and
likely to learn.” (p. 350) However, the typical North American classroom
follows a social organization alien to most culturally diverse students. For
example, research shows that effective classroom social organizations for Hawaiian
students tends to be 4 or 5 students of mixed sex working together, but for
Navajo students, the ideal group was 2 or 3 students of the same sex. Differences between conventions of conversation among cultural groups account
for many students being diagnosed as “low verbal ability” in school
while being highly verbal in other settings beyond school. Factors such as wait
time, rhythm and participation structures can combine to make meaningful class
participation extremely difficult for students who come from a home /community
environment with significantly different sociolinguistic patterns. On the other
hand, when school/home sociolinguistic compatabilities exist, children are more
comfortable, and are more likely to display their true abilities. American schools expect students to tend towards certain cognitive functions,
such as verbal/analytic thought rather than visual /holistic thought. Minority
cultures whose members tend towards cognitive functions that are congruent with
our mainstream cognitive functions are more likely to succeed in school (Japanese
and Chinese, for example). This is not based on specific cognitive abilities
that students possess, but rather on broader patterns of thinking. For example,
when teachers favor more holistic and visual teaching strategies, such as whole
story discussions, Navajo children are more likely to succeed. Both trait motivation, persistent and supported by parental, community and
cultural reinforcement, and state motivation, incentives designed by the teacher
in the classroom, can be essential to the academic success of culturally diverse
students. Adequately addressing these four factors (social organization, sociolinguistics,
cognition and motivation), and attempting to make them culturally compatible,
can result in greater student participation, enjoyment and success. Additionally, there are two constants, language development and contextualized
instruction, that do not vary between cultural groups, but rather have been
shown to improve school achievement for all minority groups. Language development
should be emphasized at all levels and be incorporated into all activities.
Likewise, all activities should be contextualized into the student’s previous
experiences and linked to the student’s previous knowledge. This leads
to bicultural competence, which has been shown to be a predictor of positive
academic outcomes. Tharp concludes with an integrated hypothesis, that students require cultural
compatibility for the introduction of skills, but that they should be pushed
to practice those new skills in activity settings that are not represented in
their natal culture. He ends with four areas where further research is needed
: intracultural variability; selection of critical compatabilities; compatabilities
in a multicultural setting; and experimental work in actual classrooms. Tharp, R. G., & Dalton, S. (1994). Principles for culturally compatible
Native American education. Journal of Navajo Education, XL(Spring), 21-27. “Cultural computability is a perspective on education reform asserting
that education is more effective when compatible with the cultural patterns
of students. This perspective grows from observations in the homes and communities
particularly of less-successful minority students, and from observations in
those students’ schools. Comparing these two has led to the “match/mismatch”
hypothesis for explaining divergence in school achievement among different populations.
When the teaching/ learning patterns of socialization in the home environment
and school are more nearly alike, then greater school attainment is to be expected.
The documented mismatches are numerous and stark. The general utility of the
“match/mismatch” hypothesis at this time, seems incontrovertible.
However, the details continue to be problematic. That is, which of all the mismatched
dimensions are the critical ones for school success, and how can the schools
respond to the effort to match?” (p. 2) Different variables have been studied in different cultural contexts (i.e.
desegregation in the African American community, bilingualism in the Latino
community), but studies of cultural compatibility have been focused in Native
American communities. The four differences among cultures that have been shown
to have significant educational consequences, are :1) social organization (large
group vs. small group; same sex vs. mixed sex grouping; and how teachers interact
with student groups); 2) sociolinguistics (courtesies and conventions of conversation
such as wait time between speakers); 3) cognition (styles of learning, perceiving
and problem solving such as holistic vs. analytic); and 4) motivation (such
as the effect of group vs. individual rewards and incentives). Despite these cultural differences, Tharp and Dalton propose four cross-cultural
principles that seem to support effective culturally compatible education. The
four principles are : I. Developing competence in the language of instruction is a metagoal of all
instructional activities of the school day. “Language development at all levels -- vocabulary through syntax -- is
advocated as a self-conscious and ubiquitous goal for the entire school day.
Evidence is also strong that language development of this kind should be fostered
through use, and through purposive conversation between teacher and students,
rather that through drill and decontexualized rules.” (p. 8) II. Teaching , curriculum and the school itself are contexualized in the experiences,
skills and vales of the community. This contextualization exists on three levels. On the pedagogical level, students’
existing schemata should be related to the material being instructed. At the
curriculum level, cultural materials and skills should be used as the media
in which goals of literacy, numeracy and science are contextualized. On the
policy level, school itself should be contexualized through collaboration with
parents and communities. III. Teaching and learning occurs in contexts of joint productive activity
with peers and teacher. “Contemporary sociocultural theory emphasizes that learning takes place
best in joint productive activity, that is, when experts and novices work together
for a common product or goal, and during the activity have opportunities to
converse about it....Schools do not typically do it this way; there is little
joint activity from which common experiences emerge, and therefore there is
no common context that allows students to develop a common understanding with
the teacher and with each other.” (p. 10) IV. The basic form of teaching is through dialogue between teacher and learners
-- through the Instructional Conversation. “The development of thinking skills, the abilities to form, express, and
exchange ideas in speech and writing : for all these basic processes, the critical
form of assisting learners is through dialogue, through the questioning and
sharing of ideas and knowledge that happens in the Instructional Conversation....Teachers
who engage in conversation, like parents in their natural teaching, are assuming
that the students may have something to say beyond the “known answers”
in the head of the adult.” (p. 12) Making use of the instructional conversation allows for the culture of the
learner to be revealed to the teacher. This then allows the teacher to better
contextualize material in the experience based of the learner. “These four principles are related, and form one holistic view. That is,
the instructional conversation is the best method for development of the language
of instruction, which occurs best when contextualized in experience, the ideal
form of which is by creating joint productive activity, which becomes the setting
for the instructional conversation.” (p.13) Finally, Tharp and Dalton outline two additional principles that seem to hold
true, specifically in American Indian communities. These are : V. American Indian classrooms should include activities that are generated
and directed by individual students or small groups. Given the degree of autonomy and decision making power that even young children
are given in American Indian communities, it is not surprising that these students
feel comfortable generating, organizing and directing their own classroom activities,
and asking the teacher when they need assistance. VI. Lessons should include some performance and demonstration. Since American Indian socialization emphasizes learning by observation, demonstrations
and other performance activities are likely to both increase understanding and
facilitate verbal conversations between students and teachers. These principles, especially, the first four, are effective for all students,
not just minority students. The reason that American schools have not practiced
this type of education is that schools have been able to rely on family and
community experiences of majority-culture students to provided this type of
shared context and language development. As our schools continue to become more
culturally and linguistically diverse, however, teachers will become increasingly
responsible for providing this common experience, activity and language that
students require to be successful. Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching,
learning, and schooling in social context. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press. The goal of this book is to create a unified theory of teaching and learning,
grounded in historical perspectives of teaching and schooling and a contextualist/cognitive
view of human learning. As the authors explain, “such teaching -- understood
as assisted performance of apprentices in joint activity with experts -- becomes
the vehicle through which the interactions of society are internalized and become
mind.” (p. 8) The book is divided into two parts, Part I which outlines
this unified theory of education, and Part II, which provides examples of this
theory in practice. These annotations will focus on one chapter from each of
the two parts: Chapter 5 which presents a theory of literacy in terms of the
patterns of language and cognitive development that can develop through teaching
and schooling interactions in social context, and Chapter 6 which gives an overview
of the Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP), which is used in this
book as the major “good example” for teaching, classroom and school
organization, teacher training, and research and development. Chapter 5 asks what schools should teach, and answers the question by saying
that “schools should teach students to be literate in the most general
sense of the word -- capable of reading, writing, speaking, computing, reasoning,
and manipulating visual as well as verbal symbols and concepts.” (p. 93)
From this perspective, literacy is the third leg of a theoretical tripod that
also includes a commitment to teaching and schooling. The three are interconnected,
and each supports the other two. If the goal of education is to develop concepts, then meaningful discourse
in the classroom should be the means to that end. The key concept necessary
to understand discourse is word meaning, which entails both social interaction
and cognitive development. Word meaning which includes both vocabulary and discourse
competencies is developed by students in the context of social use in joint
activity. In natural speech communities (such as children learning their first
language) adults do not teach language intentionally as an end in and of itself.
Instead, the “teaching” that takes place is in the context of a goal
directed activity, when the child or the adult has something that they wish
to communicate to the other. The goal is to create and sustain meaningful dialogue.
However, the pattern of language teaching used in schools differs greatly from
that used in natural speech communities. In schools, students tend to talk less
than at home, address less utterances to adults, are spoken to individually
less often, and engage in shorter sequences of conversation than at home. When
children are given language instruction in schools it is almost invariably in
the form of direct instruction such as learning grammatical rules, vocabulary
lists and pattern drills, with little opportunity for students to express their
own ideas or thoughts. In terms of literacy skills, Tharp and Gallimore argue that literacy development
begins in children before the start of formal reading instruction. It takes
place in a number of everyday activity settings such as domestic chores, entertainment,
religious activities, story book time, etc. While these experiences vary with
the social, cultural and class background of the home, by nature of growing
up in a literate society, all children are exposed to some forms of literary
activity from a young age. While literacy development if obviously linked closely
to language development, it is also tied to the more generalized development
of thinking as well. As language becomes decontextualized in the school setting,
students’ thinking must shift from sign-object relationships to sign-sign
relationships. Reading is the main arena in which this shift takes place, where
According to Heath and Mangiola (1991), literate behavior in the school context
involves the skills of interpreting texts, saying what texts mean, tying texts
into personal experience, explaining and arguing with passages of text, making
predictions based on the text, hypothesizing outcomes of related situations,
comparing and evaluating, and talking about doing all of the above. Studies
have found that when these skills are taught in the primary language, they are
readily transferred into English and into all content areas as well (i.e. Heath
and Mangiola, 1991; Rosebury, Warren, & Conant, 1992).